But this is a highly unstable element, and so it is not how it appears in food. This is how phosphorus appears in food:
P hosphorus in food
Image: Phosphorus in food:7(A) adenosine 5 0 -triphosphate; (meat) (B) fructose 1,6-bisphosphate;(dairy products) (C) cytidine triphosphate; ( beer, tomatoes, broccoli, and oats.8 ) (D) riboflavin-5 0 -phosphate; (Vitamin B2, for food sources see chapter 7.6.B.2.)(E) creatine phosphate; (meat and fish9) (F) pyridoxal-5 0 -phosphate. (Vitamin B6 pyridoxine.10 For food sources see Chapter 7.6.B6)
Revici classified Phosphorus as theoretically anabolic.
Image: Phosphorus theoretically anabolic on Revici’s chart11
“Phosphorus” comes from the Greek word phosphorous, which means “bringer of light.” In drug or supplement form, it’s called phosphate12. Phosphorus plays an important role in keeping you healthy, so it’s an important part of your diet13.
This mineral is hard at work in every one of the trillions of cells in your body right now14.
Function and Health Benefits Phosphorus
Phosphorus is an essential mineral that your body uses to build healthy bones, create energy and make new cells15.You have more of this mineral in your body than any other except calcium. Sulfur, calcium 16 and phosphorus are the three most abundant minerals in the human body17.
One of its main tasks is to serve as a building block for healthy teeth and bones18.You may think that’s calcium’s job. But calcium needs phosphorus to make your teeth and bones strong19 and create healthy bones20 create energy and make new cells21.Phosphorus is a building block for healthy teeth and bones22.
Phosphorus also helps your nerves and muscles do their jobs23.
Phosphorus also helps you turn fat, carbs, and protein 24into energy.
Phosphorus aids in weight loss
Phosphorus and Calcium work together maintain a healthy blood PH.25. More Phosphorus means more alkaline blood, More Calcium means more acidic blood. The ideal calcium to phosphorus ratio is 1-2:126Phosphorus is a a buffer that keeps the pH level in your blood balanced27.
According to the American Association for Clinical Chemistry, normal blood pH levels are between 7.35 and 7.45.
A blood pH above 7.45 indicate alkalosis, or too much phosphorus
A blood pH below 7.35 indicates acidosis.28, or too much calcium.
Acidosis reduces, and alkalosis increases the binding of calcium to albumin, causing increased or decreased levels of ionized calcium, respectively29.
So acidosis reduces the binding of calcium to albumin, causing increased levels of ionized calcium,
and alkalosis increases the binding of calcium to albumin, causing decreased levels of ionized calcium.
High pH levels cause low calcium levels.
Deficiency Symptoms Phosphorus : Metabolic acidosis too low blood pH
Low phosphorus status has been positively associated with increased body weight33.
Low phosphorus may cause kidney stones:
Nerve disorders
Osteomalacia , which is a marked softening of your bones.
Rhabdomyolysis is a serious syndrome due to a direct or indirect muscle injury. It results from the death of muscle fibers and release of their contents into the bloodstream. This can lead to serious complications such as renal (kidney) failure. This means the kidneys cannot remove waste and concentrated urine. In rare cases, Rhabdomyolysis can even cause death. However, prompt treatment often brings a good outcome. Here’s what you need to know about Rhabdomyolysis.
The “classic triad” of Rhabdomyolysis symptoms are:
muscle pain in the shoulders, thighs, or lower back;
muscle weakness or trouble moving arms and legs. Half of people with the condition may have no muscle-related symptoms.
dark red or brown urine or decreased urination. Other common signs of Rhabdomyolysis include:
Peripheral neuropathy, a result of damage to the nerves located outside of the brain and spinal cord (peripheral nerves), often causes weakness, numbness and pain, usually in the hands and feet. It can also affect other areas and body functions including digestion, urination and circulation35
Some of the common symptoms of metabolic acidosis, when there is too little phosphorus and too much calcium, and the blood pH is too low, include the following:
rapid and shallow breathing
confusion
fatigue
headache
sleepiness
lack of appetite
jaundice
increased heart rate
breath that smells fruity, which is a sign of diabetic acidosis (ketoacidosis)
Without prompt treatment, acidosis may lead to the following health complications:
When blood pH levels become too high, and thus the blood too alkaline it is called Alkalosis. Metabolic Alkalosis. can have central nervous system manifestations ranging from confusion to coma, peripheral neuropathic symptoms of tremor, tingling and numbness, muscle weakness and twitching, and arrhythmia’s, particularly when associated with hypokalemia and hypocalcemia.
Deficiency Causes Phosphorus
Calcium overload causes Phosphorus deficiency
Calcium overload can be caused by oral vitamin D,
Phosphorus deficiency, also called hypophosphatemia, can happen
The recommended daily intake (RDI) for adults is 700 mg, but growing teens and pregnant women need more. The daily value (DV) was estimated to be 1,000 mg, but was recently updated to 1,250 mg to cover the needs of these groups52.
How much phosphorus you need depends on your age. (Women who are pregnant or breastfeeding need the same amount as other adults.)
If you have a health issue that keeps you from getting enough phosphorus from food, your doctor can prescribe a supplement. Phosphate also treats some types of urinary tract infections and prevents calcium stones in the urinary tract54.
The stability of phosphorus depends on the form it is in. As riboflavin Vitamin B2, (dairy products, nuts, seeds, mushrooms) Riboflavin it is heat stable but light sensitive. Thermal decomposition of Vitamin B2 in air atmosphere occurs at 296 °C. 72If Vitamin B2 is exposed to too much light it can be deactivated from its usable form. UV light can destroy a percentage73 of Vitamin B2, Riboflavin74So heat it any way you like, but store it in the dark. And if you heat it, use the fluids you used to cook or fry it in for soups or sauce, since the vitamins and minerals leech into them. As Vitamin B6 (nuts, seeds, vegetables) Thermal decomposition in air atmosphere occurs at 212 °C. 75 As with all B Vitamins, use the fluids you boiled, cooked or fried them in, because the Vitamins leech in them.
Relationships Phosphorus: Seesaw with Calcium to regulate blood pH: Low Phosphorus, low pH Acidosis, High Phosphorus, high pH, Alkalosis
Alkalosis(Too much phosphorus, too little calcium) and Acidosis (too little phosphorus, too much calcium)
1What is next for the Dietary Reference Intakes for bone metabolism related nutrients beyond calcium: phosphorus, magnesium, vitamin D, and fluoride?PubMed,February 2009, Bergman C, Gray-Scott D, Chen JJ, Meacham S. What is next for the Dietary Reference Intakes for bone metabolism related nutrients beyond calcium: phosphorus, magnesium, vitamin D, and fluoride? Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2009 Feb;49(2):136-44. doi: 10.1080/10408390701764468. PMID: 18989832.,https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18989832/
3What is next for the Dietary Reference Intakes for bone metabolism related nutrients beyond calcium: phosphorus, magnesium, vitamin D, and fluoride?PubMed,February 2009, Bergman C, Gray-Scott D, Chen JJ, Meacham S. What is next for the Dietary Reference Intakes for bone metabolism related nutrients beyond calcium: phosphorus, magnesium, vitamin D, and fluoride? Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2009 Feb;49(2):136-44. doi: 10.1080/10408390701764468. PMID: 18989832.,https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18989832/
4SARS-CoV-2: influence of phosphate and magnesium, moderated by vitamin D, on energy (ATP) metabolism and on severity of COVID-19, PubMed,January 1, 2021, van Kempen TATG, Deixler E. SARS-CoV-2: influence of phosphate and magnesium, moderated by vitamin D, on energy (ATP) metabolism and on severity of COVID-19. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2021 Jan 1;320(1):E2-E6. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.00474.2020. Epub 2020 Nov 11. PMID: 33174766; PMCID: PMC7816430.Theo A T G van Kempen 1, Elisabeth Deixler 2,1North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina.2München, Germany., https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33174766/
7Phosphorus in food,ResearchGate, May 2019, Biomolecule-assisted green synthesis of nanostructured calcium phosphates and their biomedical applications, Chao Qi, Sara Musetti, Lian-Hua Fu[…], Leaf Huanghttps://www.researchgate.net/figure/Chemical-structures-of-typical-phosphorus-containing-biomolecules-A-adenosine-5-0_fig18_333053839
8Potential SARS-CoV-2 RdRp inhibitors of cytidine derivatives: NIH, November 28, 2022, M A Kawsar S, Hosen MA, Ahmad S, El Bakri Y, Laaroussi H, Ben Hadda T, Almalki FA, Ozeki Y, Goumri-Said S. Potential SARS-CoV-2 RdRp inhibitors of cytidine derivatives: Molecular docking, molecular dynamic simulations, ADMET, and POM analyses for the identification of pharmacophore sites. PLoS One. 2022 Nov 28;17(11):e0273256. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0273256. PMID: 36441684; PMCID: PMC9704642., Molecular docking, molecular dynamic simulations, ADMET, and POM analyses for the identification of pharmacophore sites, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9704642
17Are we getting enough sulfur in our diet? PubMed, November 6, 2007, Nimni ME, Han B, Cordoba F. Are we getting enough sulfur in our diet? Nutr Metab (Lond). 2007 Nov 6;4:24. doi: 10.1186/1743-7075-4-24 PMID: 17986345 PMCID: PMC2198910, Marcel E Nimni, 1 Bo Han,1 and Fabiola Cordoba2 , 1Departments of Surgery and Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA. 90032, USA2Pediatrics Medical Group, San Juan, 00907, Puerto Rico,corresponding authorCorresponding author.,Marcel E Nimni: moc.loa@700inmin; Bo Han: ude.csu@nahob; Fabiola Cordoba: moc.loa@abodrocaloibaf https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2198910/
20What is next for the Dietary Reference Intakes for bone metabolism related nutrients beyond calcium: phosphorus, magnesium, vitamin D, and fluoride?PubMed,February 2009, Bergman C, Gray-Scott D, Chen JJ, Meacham S. What is next for the Dietary Reference Intakes for bone metabolism related nutrients beyond calcium: phosphorus, magnesium, vitamin D, and fluoride? Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2009 Feb;49(2):136-44. doi: 10.1080/10408390701764468. PMID: 18989832.,https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18989832/
21What is next for the Dietary Reference Intakes for bone metabolism related nutrients beyond calcium: phosphorus, magnesium, vitamin D, and fluoride?PubMed,February 2009, Bergman C, Gray-Scott D, Chen JJ, Meacham S. What is next for the Dietary Reference Intakes for bone metabolism related nutrients beyond calcium: phosphorus, magnesium, vitamin D, and fluoride? Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2009 Feb;49(2):136-44. doi: 10.1080/10408390701764468. PMID: 18989832.,https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18989832/
26Calcium to phosphorus ratio, essential elements and vitamin D content of infant foods in the UK: Possible implications for bone health, PMC, July 13, 2017, Loughrill E, Wray D, Christides T, Zand N. Calcium to phosphorus ratio, essential elements and vitamin D content of infant foods in the UK: Possible implications for bone health. Matern Child Nutr. 2017 Jul;13(3):e12368. doi: 10.1111/mcn.12368, Epub 2016 Sep 9. PMID: 27612307; PMCID: PMC6865864, Emma Loughrill 1, David Wray 1, Tatiana Christides 1, Nazanin Zand 1 , Faculty of Engineering and Science, University of Greenwich, Medway Campus, Chatham Maritime, Kent, ME4 4TB, UK., https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27612307/
29Hypocalcemia, NIH, August 8, 2021. Abhinav Goyal; Catherine Anastasopoulou; Michael Ngu; Shikha Singh. 1 Einstein Medical Center, 2 Einstein Medical Center, 3 University of Heidelberg Medical School Germany, 4 Wyckoff Heights Medical Center https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430912/
32Dangers of very low blood pH,PMC, July, 2011, Rosival V. Dangers of very low blood pH. Indian J Crit Care Med. 2011 Jul;15(3):194. doi: 10.4103/0972-5229.84887 ,PMID: 22013317; PMCID: PMC3190476. Viktor Rosival, Department of Laboratory Medicine, SYNLAB, Dérer’s Hospital, Bratislava, Slovakia, Correspondence: Dr. Viktor Rosival, Department of Laboratory Medicine, SYNLAB, Dérer’s Hospital, Limbová 5, SK-833 05 Bratislava, Slovakia, Europe. E-mail: moc.liamtoh@vlavisor https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3190476/
33Effect of phosphorus supplementation on weight gain and waist circumference of overweight/obese adults: a randomized clinical trial,PMC, December 21, 2015, Ayoub JJ, Samra MJ, Hlais SA, Bassil MS, Obeid OA. Effect of phosphorus supplementation on weight gain and waist circumference of overweight/obese adults: a randomized clinical trial. Nutr Diabetes. 2015 Dec 21;5(12):e189. doi: 10.1038/nutd.2015.38 PMID: 26690287 PMCID: PMC4735052, J J Ayoub,1,4 M J A Samra,1,4 S A Hlais,2 M S Bassil,3 and O A Obeid1,* 1Department of Nutrition and Food Science, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon 2Department of Family Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, American University of Beirut Medical Center, Beirut, Lebanon 3Department of Natural Sciences, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Lebanese American University, Beirut, Lebanon *Department of Nutrition and Food Science, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, American University of Beirut, PO Box 11-0236, Beirut 1107 2020, Lebanon. E-mail: bl.ude.bua@diebo.ramohttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4735052/
49Calcium to phosphorus ratio, essential elements and vitamin D content of infant foods in the UK: Possible implications for bone health, PMC, July 13, 2017, Loughrill E, Wray D, Christides T, Zand N. Calcium to phosphorus ratio, essential elements and vitamin D content of infant foods in the UK: Possible implications for bone health. Matern Child Nutr. 2017 Jul;13(3):e12368. doi: 10.1111/mcn.12368, Epub 2016 Sep 9. PMID: 27612307; PMCID: PMC6865864, Emma Loughrill 1, David Wray 1, Tatiana Christides 1, Nazanin Zand 1 , Faculty of Engineering and Science, University of Greenwich, Medway Campus, Chatham Maritime, Kent, ME4 4TB, UK., https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27612307/
51Calcium to phosphorus ratio, essential elements and vitamin D content of infant foods in the UK: Possible implications for bone health, PMC, July 13, 2017, Loughrill E, Wray D, Christides T, Zand N. Calcium to phosphorus ratio, essential elements and vitamin D content of infant foods in the UK: Possible implications for bone health. Matern Child Nutr. 2017 Jul;13(3):e12368. doi: 10.1111/mcn.12368, Epub 2016 Sep 9. PMID: 27612307; PMCID: PMC6865864, Emma Loughrill 1, David Wray 1, Tatiana Christides 1, Nazanin Zand 1 , Faculty of Engineering and Science, University of Greenwich, Medway Campus, Chatham Maritime, Kent, ME4 4TB, UK., https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27612307/
52Food Labeling: Revision of the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels. Final rule,Food and Drug Administration, HHS. Food Labeling: Revision of the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels. Final rule. Fed Regist. 2016 May 27;81(103):33741-999. PMID: 27236870.https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27236870/
68Phytate in foods and significance for humans: food sources, intake, processing, bioavailability, protective role and analysis,PubMed, September 2009, Schlemmer U, Frølich W, Prieto RM, Grases F. Phytate in foods and significance for humans: food sources, intake, processing, bioavailability, protective roleand analysis. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2009 Sep;53 Suppl 2:S330-75. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.200900099, PMID: 19774556, Ulrich Schlemmer 1, Wenche Frølich, Rafel M Prieto, Felix Grases https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19774556/
69Changes in phytates and HCl extractability of calcium, phosphorus, and iron of soaked, dehulled, cooked, and sprouted pigeon pea cultivar (UPAS-120), PubMed, September 2009, Schlemmer U, Frølich W, Prieto RM, Grases F. Phytate in foods and significance for humans: food sources, intake, processing, bioavailability, protective role and analysis. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2009 Sep;53 Suppl 2:S330-75. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.200900099, PMID: 19774556, Ulrich Schlemmer 1, Wenche Frølich, Rafel M Prieto, Felix Grases , Department of Physiology and Biochemistry of Nutrition, Max Rubner-Institut, Federal Research Instituteof Nutrition and Food, Karlsruhe, Germany, ulrich.schlemmer@mri.bund.de, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19774556/
The best way to get Vitamin D is through sunlight, but every source of UVB light will do. In fact that is an important part of how Vitamin D was discovered,
There’s no risk of your body making too much Vitamin D from sun exposure,. This is what all sources agree on1
The best time to get vitamin D from the sun is when it is at its highest, which is around noon, depending on the season between 10 am and 3 pm or between 11 am and 2 pm. The sun’s angle needs to be between 35 degrees and 145 degrees so you get UVB rays, the ones that make Vitamin D. See image below:
You can find the angle of the sun by imagining an x axis parallel to the earth and estimating the angle the sun makes with the earth.
The solar zenith angle is the angle between the sun and the vertical Y axis, which you can see by imagining a pole where you are standing. The zenith angle is similar to the height angle but it is measured from the vertical Y axis rather than from the horizontal X axis, thus making the zenith angle = 90° – height. 42.1 With the sun directly overhead you thus have zenith zero, and at sunrise zenith 90.
Height and Zenith
Image: Height and Zenith. In the example above the solar height is about 60 degrees and the zenith is 90-60 is 30 degrees. Zenith +height always equals 90.3
UV for D Sun Chart
The UV for D Sun chart shows you how you can tell by the sun’s zenith or height how much Vitamin D you can potentially make from sunlight, provided you take care not to exaggerate with substances that sabotage Vitamin D formation in the body. Even if the sun’s height is as low as 35 degrees, on a clear day at zero altitude you can still get the recommended 800IU daily dose from it in just 12 minutes!
Calculate how long you need to stay in the sun to get the RDA (Recommended Daily Allowance) of Vitamin D, which is 800IU) IU stands for International Units,. Divide it by 40000 to get to the number of milligrams, which is 0.02.
The chart also shows how to altitude and surroundings into account when calculating how much Vitamin D you are getting from the sun. It also shows what the Vitamin D helpers and blockers are.
You can see what an abundance of Vitamin D we get, which is stored in the skin as previtamin D3. Your cholesterol which is every cell, can store it for a very long time, and you get enough very quickly.
1.Estimate the suns height by looking at your shadow. Is it as long as you, it is 45 degrees height, as well as zenith. Is it shorter than you? Then the sun is between 50 and 90 degrees height or between 40 and zero degrees zenith. Is it longer than you? Then it is between 0 and 40 degrees height or 90 and 50 degrees zenith.
As you can see in the UV for D Sun chart, being in the sun for an hour on a clear day at altitude zero (that means at sea level) with no water or snow at zenith 45, which is 45 height, which isn’t very high. already gives enough previtamin D for 10 days!
The links to the research it is based on can be found in the Vitamin D blog post on the Scentses website.5
UVICSZA stands for UV Index with Clear Sky at Zero Altitude, and no other influences.
2.To see how to adjust the UVICSZA numbers to fit your situation, look at your altitude (how high above sea level you are, then what the surroundings are (is there water, sand or snow), then what the weather conditions are (is it clear or cloudy).
That determines how many percent you need to add to the UVICSZA (The UVB on a clear day at zero altitude.(
Clouds give some reduction, but not as much as you would think, Even an overcast sky still transmits 31 % of the UV0B, which means you need to stay outside about 3 times as long as you would on a clear day to get the same amount of previtamin D.
Scattered clouds still transmit 89%., broken clouds still transmit 73%.
Snow gives an 80% gain!
That means that an hour in the snow on a sunny day at zero altitude when the sun’s zenith and height are 45 degrees, gives you enough previtamin D for 18 days! That’s why people with rickets weren’t found in Northern countries where the sun does not get above 30 degrees for half the year. In the rest of the year they got more than enough Vitamin D from the sun to bridge that period. Children with Rickets were found in the streets of London where the houses were built in such a way that there was never any sun at all. And they did not have to go to Florida to get cured. Just the English sun was good enough. 6
Sand gives a 25% increase, and water a 30% increase meaning you get enough for over 12 days in an hour at zenith 45.
There is a 4% increase for every 350 meters increase in altitude,
A 1% loss for every centimeter under water, but of course that is generously compensated by the 30% increase the reflection of the water gives.
Shade only gives a 90% reduction, which means that even then still 10 percent comes through.
And you don’t have to torture yourself with bare skin if the weather does not permit it.. Kurt Huldischinsky was able to heal rickets one arm by shining a UV-B light on the other, which is how Vitamin D was discovered. In fact, if you feel cold, that will sabotage Vitamin D uptake. So your Vitamin D uptake with less bare skin and being comfortable will be higher than with more bare skin but being cold.
You even get it through the eyes, so no worries about the Inuit not getting enough, especially as long as they still have snow, which enhances UV light, and thus per-Vitamin D formation in the skin, with 80%
Vitamin D helpers are Calcium, magnesium, Vitamin K2, which we make ourselves with Vitamin K1 and Lactobacillus lactis, Vitamin B5, Lysine, Zinc, all from organic food of course.
And when people have a lack of Vitamin D, there are plenty of other possible problems
Vitamin D blockers are anything that damages the skin, like Sodium lauryl Sulfate in soap,
Smoking and Excessive alcohol sabotages Vitamin D formation.
Olive oil and Apple cider vinegar enhance Vitamin and mineral uptake.
You will get infinitely more Vitamin D from the sun than you could ever hope to get safely orally.
And more importantly, our body gets to decide when and how to use it, instead of us throwing it in randomly at times when it is not the right timing for the body and not the right quantity, since oral vitamin D needs to be used immediately. It can’t be stored in the skin for the body to use whenever and however it needs it, as is the case for sun sourced pre vitamin D can. In the body’s harmony, sun sourced Vitamin D is the skilled musician playing at the right beat at the right time, whereas oral vitamin D is the tone deaf amateur who blurts out his notes with no regard for what the rest of the orchestra is doing. Even if he accidentally hits a right note, it will still be at the wrong time and volume.
Chapter 1 explains what Linoleic-Acid (Omega-6-LA) and what Alpha-Linolenic-Acid (Omega-3-ALA) are and why they are essential.
Chapter 7.2 has an overview of different foods you can eat to get the right Omega-3-ALA to Omega-6-LA balance.
Chapter 4 explains how the essential fatty acids are placed in our cell membranes and why it is so important to eat healthy fats.
While figuring it out, you can just start eating the equivalent of 3.5 tablespoons of walnuts a day, since it has the heart healthy 1;4 Omega-3-ALA to Omega-6-LA balance.
If this does not get you up and running again, there is plenty more you can do to become and stay healthy. It does not just apply to Covid-19.
1.1.What are Linoleic-Acid and Alpha-Linolenic-Acid,why are they essential, and what do they do?
Linoleic-Acid is an essential fatty acid. Fatty acids are organic substances the molecules of which consist of a hydrophilic carboxylic acid head, a carbon chain, and a hydrophobic methyl tail.
Essential means that the body cannot make it itself, We need to get it from food.
Linoleic acid is a poly unsaturated fatty acid, or a PUFA for short.
Linoleic-Acid is the parent Omega 6 from which all other Omega-6 fatty acids in the body are made.
Image: Linoleic acid and derivatives Arichodonic and Gamma-Linolenic-Acid scale, molecular formula and structure3
Among many other things, Linoleic-Acid is used by the body to make Arachidonic-Acid, a fatty acid, which is responsible for the synthesis of various hormones4 and of macrophages, specifically the white blood cells that are responsible for the innate immune response5.
The innate immune response is the immediate inflammatory response to pathogens like fever, swelling and coughing.
There are only two essential fatty acids.
The other is Alpha-Linolenic-Acid. That is the essential Omega-3 fatty acid from which all other Omega-3 fatty acids are made that regulate the adoptive immune response.The adoptive immune response is non inflammatory, pathogen specific and is aquired, so it takes longer to kick in. When it does, it takes over the inflammatory response and we are immune to a disease.
The list of benefits of Omega-6 fatty acids synthesized from Linoleic-Acid as well as Linoleic-Acid itself goes on.
What you usually hear is that Linoleic-Acid helps stimulate skin health and hair growth, maintain bone health, regulate metabolism, and maintain the reproductive system 6But Linoleic-Acid and the other Omega 6 fatty acids derived from it do much more.
The same goes for Alpha-Linolenic-Acid,the parent Omega-3 fatty acid and its derivatives.
Our whole immune system builds on these two essential fatty acids. The innate immune system is derived from Linoleic Acid, the adoptive immune system is derived from Alpha-Linolenic Acid.
Alpha-Linolenic-Acid is necessary for normal human growth and development.
Alpha-Linolenic-Acid is also beneficial for treating Crohn’s disease, depression, diabetes, high cholesterol, Kidney disease, migraines, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis (RA), skin diseases, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), renal disease, ulcerative colitis, It is also used to prevent pneumonia.
Other uses include treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), migraine headache, skin cancer, depression, and allergic and inflammatory conditions such as psoriasis and eczema8. . Alpha-Linolenic-Acid prevents cancer..
Only the Parent Omega-3 and Omega-6 are essential
Most Omega-6 fatty acids and Omega-3 fatty acids are used in their parent forms of Linoleic-Acid and Alpha-Linolenic-Acid in all the cell mebranes. From them the liver can synthesize all the Omega-3 and Omega 6 fatty acids in whatever form it needs.
It cannot form the parent Omega’s from the derivatives though.
Confusing terms
While we always hear about the importance of Omega 3 and Omega 6 that we should take Omega 3 and Omega 6 in balance with each other, the terms Omega 3 and Omega 6 are not specific enough.. There are more than 20 Omega 3 and omega 6 fatty acids in nature, of which only 5 occur in humans and of which only 2 are essential,
Alpha Linolenic acid (ALA) and Linoleic Acid (LA) are the only poly unsaturated essential fatty acids. The other3, EPA and DHA, which are Omega 3 fatty acids, and AA, which is an Omega 6 fatty acid, are synthesized from them in the liver, and it is better to take them in the parent form ALA, and LA for the same reason it is better to ingest Bèta Carotene than Vitamin A. If the body can synthesize the EPA , DHA and AA it needs when it needs, it always has enough and never has to much. If you eat DHA, EPA and AA directly, the body can do nothing with the excess and it goes rancid and causes inflammation.
Why it is better to talk about the specific Omega 3 you are referring to
The name omega 3 comes means that the first double bond occurs at the third Carbon atom counting from the methyl end of the molecule.
There are at least 11 different forms of Omega 3 that occur naturally:
Of those 11 , 3 are important to the human metabolism, ALA, EPA and DHA, and only ALA is essential, because EPA and DHA are synthesized from ALA in the liver,
Nevertheless, the terms ALA, EPA and DHA are all called Omega 3, while they are not the same thing. And thus wrong conclusions are drawn about their uses and functions.
EPA and DHA are extremely unstable, go rancid quickly, and start deteriorating at temperatures as low as 48.8 degrees Celcius. So anyone who thinks they are getting any omega’s from their cooked salmon should think again. Not only is their no Alpha-Linolenic-Acid in fish, the EPA and DHA it does have is destroyed in the cooking process.
It is pretended that the human body is inefficient in transforming Alpha-Linolenic-Acid into DHA and EPA, but this is not true. The majority of Alpha-Linolenic-Acid is used as whole in the cells. Only 5 percent is needed as DHA and EPA, mainly for the eyes. And the body ,makes that itself from ALA like it makes its own vitamin A from Bèta carotene and its own vitamin D from sunlight..
List of Omega-6 fatty acids
There are also many forms of Omega 6 fatty acid found in nature:
Omega 6 means that the first double bond from the methyl end of the molecule has a double bond.
So to avoid confusion, instead of Omega 3 and Omega 6, it is better to talk about the specific ones you want to say something about,
Arachidonic acid (AA, 20:4 n-6) is a potent bioactive molecule. … Linoleic acid (LA, 18:2 n-6) is the major dietary polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) in the Western diet and is a metabolic precursor to AA, linked biochemically via two desaturases and an elongase.
. Alpha Linolenic Acid and Linoleic Acid need to be taken in balance with one another and are crucial for many vital functions in the body
There are some vegetable oils that are mentioned as Omega 6 sources, while they only have damaged Omega 6 because of their extraction method or other processes like deodorization, and based on this wrong conclusions are drawn as to the omega 6 levels in people.
The advice is generally not to heat poly unsaturated fatty acids, but cold pressed organic olive oil is seen as a safe vegetable oil for cooking while it does have some Linoleic Acid.
Seeds and nuts are the best Alpha Linolenic and Linoleic sources. Here in the Omega chart you can see which and in which balance. You can see that here as well.
Omega 3 and Omega 6 are poly unsaturated fats, or PUFA’s.
C18: 2n-6 means there are 18 carbon atoms in the chain and 2 double bonds, and the first double bond occurs at the 6th carbon atom from the methyl tail.
It’s not specified where the rest of the double bonds are, because they always occur next to one another skipping one carbon atom between each double bonded pair, effectively every three Carbon atoms. So with Linoleic-Acid that’s at 6 and at 9 counting backward from the methyl end, at Carbon atoms n-6 and n-9, or 12 and 9.
Metabolism of Alpha-Linolenic-Acid: The metabolic pathway of conversion of Alpha-Linolenic Acid to DHA showing the enzymes involved.10
ImageMetabolism of Alpha-Linolenic-Acid: The metabolic pathway of conversion of Alpha-Linolenic Acid to DHA showing the enzymes involved.11
Your body can form all the Omega 3’s from Alpha-Linolenic-Acid and all the Omega 6’s from LinoleicAcid, but it cannot convert any of them back to the parent forms.
That is one of many reasons it is best to take the Omega’s in their parent form.
Often it will not be specified which Omega is present in food. You need to make sure that it is really the parent forms, because that is the form that the body needs most of. It is also the most stable, and the body can make as much of the derivatives it needs when it needs, where as the derivatives can’t be stored and cause inflammation.
1.2. New terms To Avoid confusion Alpha-Linolenic-Acid is Omega-3-ALA, Linoleic-Acidis Omega-6-LA
I think the clearest way to know what we are talking about is calling Linoleic-Acid Omega-6-LA and calling Alpha Linolenic-Acid Omega-3-ALA. That’s because the word Linoleic-Acid looks so much like Linolenic-Acid, which is the parent Omega-3 . And to confuse us even more, Gamma Linolenic Acid is an Omega-6-fatty acid!
A result of this confusion is that even in research conclusions about DHA spill over to conclusions about Alpha- Linolenic-Acid and conclusions about ARA spill over to conclusions about Linoleic-Acid, while they have very different characteristics.
So we need for more specific terms:
For the essential, parent Omega’s, from which all the others are synthesized in the liver:
Linoleic-Acid: Omega-6-LA
Alpha-Linolenic-Acid: Omega-3-ALA
For the non-essential Omega 6’s:
Arachidonic-Acid : Omega-6-ARA
Gamma Linolenic Acid: Omega-6- GLA
For the non-essential Omega-3 ’s:
Docosahexaenoic acid: Omega-3-DHA
Eicosapentaenoic acid: Omega-3-EPA
1.3. More functions of Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA
Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA form the framework for the organism’s cell membranes. Particularly the neurons in the brain, are involved in the energy-transformation process and regulate the information flows between cells.
Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA, are precursors, or sources,12 of ”hormonal” molecules, often with opposing effects.
Hormones are molecules that carry instructions from more than a dozen endocrine glands and tissues to cells all over the body.
Endocrine glands are organs that make hormones that are released directly into the blood and travel to tissues and organs all over the body. Endocrine glands help control many body functions, including growth and development, metabolism, and fertility.
Some examples of endocrine glands are the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands.13
Once hormones find a target cell, they bind with specific protein receptors inside or on the surface of the cell and specifically change the cell’s activities. 14Steroid hormones, such as estrogens, prolactin15, progesterone, and glucocorticoids (GCs) modulate the development and activity of both innate and adaptive immunity differently in men and women. 16
Omega-6-LAis a precursor to prostaglandins, prostacyclins, thromboxanes and leukotrienes, which are hormones that regulate innate immunity, such as fever, platelet aggregation, mucus formationand inflammation.
Inflammation is a process by which your body’s white blood cells and the things they make protect you from infection from outside invaders, such as bacteria and viruses. 17
Omega-6-LAis the precursor to the inflammatory hormones, the hormones that cause inflammation in order to protect the body from pathogens as a part of the innate, or immediate immune response to pathogens, which is general.
Linoleic-Acid is the precursor to Arachidonic-Acid (AA) with elongation and saturation,.AA is the precursor to Eicosanoids. whichare signaling molecules that are, similar to Arachidonic-Acid, Eicosanoids may also act as endocrine agents to control the function of distant cells…….. .The name comes from είκοσι, pronounced eíkosi the Greek word for 20.18 That’s because eicosanoids are made of 20 carbon atoms. They fulfill different immune functions in different parts of the body. The Eicosanoids derived from Arachidonic-Acid are prostaglandins, thromboxane (TXA) and leukotrienes (LTA, LTB, LTC).
Function of Eicanosoids
Image: Eicosanoids: Formation, Function, and Subclasses.19
Eicanosoids are made from Linoleic Acid and are Omega-6-Acids responsible for the innate immune response.
The prostaglandins are a group of lipids made at sites of tissue damage or infection that are involved in dealing with injury and illness. They control processes such as inflammation, blood flow, the formation of blood clots and the induction of labour.20The prostaglandins (PG) are a group of physiologically active lipid compounds called eicosanoids having diverse hormone-like effects in botth humans and animals. Prostaglandins have been found in almost every tissue in humans and other animals. They are derived enzymatically from the fatty acidarachidonic acid. Every prostaglandin contains 20 carbon atoms, including a 5-carbon ring. They are a subclass of eicosanoids and of the prostanoid class of fatty acid derivatives21.
Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), also known as dinoprostone, is a naturally occurring prostaglandin with oxytocic22 properties It has the following functions:23Pain signaling in nerves, temperature regulation in the hypothalamus, meaning they raise the temperature to a fever to fight infections, mucus production in the stomach, vasodilation in the kidneys to get rid of pathogens, uterine contraction in the womb during labour, mail fertility, which is where the name prostaglandin comes from, because this is where it was first discovered.24
Prostacyclin (also called prostaglandin I2 or PGI2) is a prostaglandin member of the eicosanoid family of lipimolecules. It inhibits platelet activation and is also an effective vasodilator25Prostaglandin I2 (PGI2), or prostacyclin, is a prostaglandin that affects many organ systems. It is both a potent inhibitor of platelet aggregation and a powerful vasodilator. It is the main prostaglandin synthesized by the blood vessel wall, which suggests that it may play an important role in limiting platelet-mediated thrombosis 26 Vasodilators open (dilate) blood vessels. They affect the muscles in the walls of the arteries and veins, preventing the muscles from tightening and the walls from narrowing. As a result, blood flows more easily through the vessels. The heart doesn’t have to pump as hard, reducing blood pressure.27 Image: from Omega-6-LA to Prostacyclin28.
In the image below see the synthesis of prostaglandins from Omega-6-LA or Linoleic Acid.
Image: Prostaglandin synthesis from Omega-6-LA2930
Here you see the synthesis of Prostaglandins from Linoleic Acid or Omega-6-LA with the molecular structures
Image: Prostaglandin (PG) synthesis from Omega-6-LA in molecular structures31
Image: Overview of prostaglandin (PG) synthesis 32
Overview of prostaglandin (PG) synthesis and main functions. Arachidonic acid can be metabolised through three major pathways. In the cyclooxygenase (COX) pathway, each COX-2 derived prostaglandin (PGI 2 , PGE 2 , PGD 2 , PGF 2 a ) or thromboxane A2 (TxA 2 ) has its unique functions. NSAIDs, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs; COXIBs, COX-2 selective inhibitors. 33
Thromboxane A2 (TxA2) is in the family of lipids known as eicosanoids, which are metabolites of arachidonic acid generated by the sequential action of three enzymes – phospholipase A2, COX-1/COX-2 and TxA2 Synthase (TXAS). TxA2 was originally described as being released from platelets and is now known to be released by a variety of other cells including macrophages, neutrophils, and endothelial cells. Named after its role in thrombosis, TxA2 has pro thrombotic properties, as it stimulates the activation of platelets and platelet aggregation. TxA2 is also a known vasoconstrictor and gets activated during times of tissue injury and inflammation. While the prostaglandin counterbalances its thrombotic and vasoconstrictor properties prostacyclin (PGI2), there are various physiological and pathological situations where this balanced becomes disregulated. Increased activity of TxA2 may play a role in the pathogenesis of myocardial infarction, stroke, atherosclerosis, and bronchial asthma..Increased action of TxA2 also has implications in pulmonary hypertension, kidney injury, hepatic injury, allergies, angiogenesis, and metastasis of cancer cells.34
It also encourages platelet aggregation.35Thromboxane is named for its role in blood clot formation (thrombosis).36Platelet aggregation and thrombosis are the key phenomena in atherosclerosis and Cardio Vascular Disease (CVD).
Platelets stick to the damaged vessel wall to form a plaque, and then stick to each other (aggregate) and release adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and thromboxane A2 (TXA2), which promote further aggregation.37Substances such as collagen, ristocetin, arachidonic acid, adenosine 5′-diphosphate (ADP), epinephrine, and thrombin can stimulate platelets and hence induce aggregation. Response to these aggregating agents (known as agonists) provides a diagnostic pattern for different disorders of platelet function 38.
Leukotrienes are a family of eicosanoidinflammatory mediators produced in leukocytes by the oxidation of arachidonic acid (AA) and the essential fatty acideicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) by the enzymearachidonate 5-lipoxygenase. Leukotrienes are inflammatory chemicals the body releases after coming into contact with a pathogen. Leukotrienes cause tightening of airway muscles and the production of excess mucus and fluid39. The lipoxygenase products (leukotrienes) have been demonstrated in many mammalian tissues including humans. They are widely distributed in the lungs, gut, uterus, kidneys, skin, heart and the liver40.
Leukotrienes use lipid signaling to convey information to either the cell producing them (autocrine signaling) or neighboring cells (paracrine signaling) in order to regulate immune responses. The production of leukotrienes is usually accompanied by the production of histamine and prostaglandins, which also act as inflammatory mediators.
LTB4 is an end product of the leukotriene bio-synthetic pathway and working through its unique receptor Ltb4r1, it functions as a potent chemokine promoting migration of macrophages and neutrophils into tissues.41
Leukotrienes C4, D4, and E4 are cysteinyl leukotrienes that are primarily responsible for the increase in vascular permeability and contraction of bronchial smooth muscle associated with an anaphylactic reaction or an acute asthma attack. 42One of their roles (specifically, leukotriene D4) is to trigger contractions in the smooth muscles lining the bronchioles; their overproduction is a major cause of inflammation in asthma and allergic rhinitis.
Leukotriene antagonists are used to treat these disorders by inhibiting the production.43 And what is a leukotriene antagonist? You guessed it. Alpha Linolenic Acid!44
Omega-3-ALAis the precursor to the anti-inflammatory hormones, called Resolvins, which are part of the acquired immune response, which is pathogen specific and causes no inflammation. Resolvinsare endogenous pro-resolving and anti-inflammatory mediators that stimulate the resolution of inflammation by increasing the number of macrophages. 45Pro-resolving mediators are active in the picogram to nanogram dose range, whereby they are able to control inflammation, limit tissue damage, shorten resolution intervals, promote healing and alleviate pain in experimental models of inflammation and resolution 46
Pro-resolution and anti-inflammation are not equivalent. Pro-resolution programmes stimulate and activate endogenous (i.e. growing within an organism47) pathways to terminate inflammation.48
A study published in Nature in May 2008 said: “Active resolution of acute inflammation is a previously unrecognized interface between innate and adaptive immunity. Once thought to be a passive process, the resolution of inflammation is now shown to involve active biochemical programmes that enable inflamed tissues to return to homeostasis. This Review presents new cellular and molecular mechanisms for the resolution of inflammation, revealing key roles for eicosanoids, such as lipoxins, and recently discovered families of endogenous chemical mediators, termed resolvins and protectins. These mediators have anti-inflammatory and pro-resolution properties, thereby protecting organs from collateral damage, stimulating the clearance of inflammatory debris and promoting mucosal antimicrobial defense49”.
Anti-inflammatory agents block certain substances in the body that cause inflammation, thus reducing inflammation (redness, swelling, and pain) in the body. 50
The Essential Fatty Acids are also important in the active phase of the myelin synthesis51. Myelin is an insulating layer, or sheath that forms around nerves, including those in the brain and spinal cord. This myelin sheath allows electrical impulses to transmit quickly and efficiently along the nerve cells.52
Image: Nerve cell with myelin sheath synthesized by essential fatty acids. 53
If Essential Fatty Acids are not available in this phase or are metabolically blocked, amyelination, dysmyelination, or demyelination may occur. If Essential Fatty Acid deficiency occurs during the postnatal period, a major delay in the myelination process will occur, accompanied by impaired learning and motor, vision, and auditory abnormalities.54
The rate of myelin lipid turnover is age dependent, and with a very slow turnover rate during aging, and the rate of repairing damaged sections of myelin is correspondingly slower. Diets deficient in Essential Fatty Acids tend to be associated with the Cell Membrane Fluidity-influenced diseases; Essential Fatty Acids deficiency has been associated with Multiple Scleroses.55
Excluding linoleic and alpha-linolenic acids from the diet of animals from their conception to 120 days of age altered the fatty acid composition of myelin and caused myelin splitting.56
The three most abundant lipids in myelin are (i) cholesterol, (ii) galactosylceramide, and (iii) plasmalogen. Together, these three lipids comprise 65% of the total myelin lipids57.
Essential fatty acids also play a role in myelin formation58.
Alpha Lipoic Acid is also important for myelin formation59.
Alpha-Lipoic-Acid, which is also called ALA 60, thus illustrating the importance of having a different term for Alpha-Linolenic-Acid, is a naturally occurring compound that’s made in the body. It serves vital functions at the cellular level, such as energy production. As long as you’re healthy, the body can produce all the Alpha Lipoic Acid it needs for these purposes61.
So we need Omega-6-LA because of the many immune functions, but also Omega-3-ALA, for balancing the effect of Omega-6-LA.
And thanks to the Bristol research of 202062, we now know another function of Omega-6-LA: an anti viral!
Since flaxseeds have 2 grams of Omega 3 ALA per tablespoon, they are a convenient way to balance the 2 grams of Omega6-LA in sunflower seeds.
Flaxseed is a rich source of the omega-3 fatty acid, alpha linolenic acid, the lignan secoisolariciresinol diglucoside and fiber. These compounds provide bioactivity of value to the health of animals and humans through their anti-inflammatory action, anti-oxidative capacity and lipid modulating properties. The characteristics of ingesting flaxseed or its bioactive components are discussed in this article. The benefits of administering flaxseed or the individual bioactive components on health and disease are also discussed in this review. Specifically, the current evidence on the benefits or limitations of dietary flaxseed in a variety of cardiovascular diseases, cancer, gastro-intestinal health and brain development and function, as well as hormonal status in menopausal women, are comprehensive topics for discussion69.
Omega-3-ALA
There are several types of flax70. The Omega-3-ALA rich Flax seeds come from Linum usitatissimum, or Common flax.
Inage: Harakeke is also called Flax , but is very different from common flax. Instead of a source of Omega-3-ALA, it is actually a source of Omega-6-LA75
1.5. Make Sure to eat the Parent Omega’s, not the Derivatives.
The body makes all the DHA and EPA it needs from Alpha-Linolenic-Acid, and excess DHA and EPA is not disposed of. It stays in the body and causes imbalance.The body never makes too much EPA and DHA. It needs far more Alpha-Linolenic-Acid than it needs EPA and DHA, So there isno need to take DHAand EPA. It’s even dangerous to do so.
1.6.RDA of Alpha-Linolenic-Acid and Linoleic-Acid
The U.S Institute of Medicine recommends an Alpha-Linolenic-Acid intake of 1.6 grams per day for men and 1.1 grams per day for women…. 326-332), between 8 and 20 per cent of Omega-3-ALA is converted to EPA in humans, and between 0.5 and nine percent of Alpha-Linolenic-Acid is converted to DHA79.
Less than 5% of the Omega-3-ALA we consume is transformed into EPA and DHA127.More than 95 % of Omega-3-ALA is used as Omega-3-ALAin the cell membranes. 80When you take fish oil, the body can do nothing with the excess EPA and DHA, so it goes rancid and causes all sorts of inflammation, while the body makes as much EPA and DHA as it needs from Alpha Linolenic Acid, and uses every bit of Alpha Linolenic Acid in its cells. The minimum dosage is set at 1 gram a day, and the maximum at 5 grams a day.
The present Omega-6-LA requirement range is 11-12 g/day for men and 14-17 g/day for adult women (non-pregnant/lactating), and the Omega-3-ALA fatty acid recommendations are 1.1 g/day for women and 1.6 g/day for men81 When pregnant, 1.4 grams should be consumed daily, and when breastfeeding, 1.3 grams should be consumed daily. Recommended amounts for children depend on age82
Vegans may need an Omega-3-ALA increase of 2.2–4.4 g/day (or 1.1 g/day/1000 Kcals) depending on the amount of Omega-6-LA in the diet in order to achieve a 4:1 Omega-6-LA- Omega-3-ALA ratio, as well as a decrease of dietary Omega-6-LA if intake of Omega-6-LA is higher than recommended83
The current Recommended Adequate Intakes of omega-3-ALA for kids are:
Delta – indicating that the double bond is created at a fixed position from the carboxyl head of a fatty acid chain. For example, Δ9 desaturase creates a double bond between the ninth and tenth carbon atom from hydrophilic carboxylic acid head
Omega – indicating the double bond is created at a fixed position from the methyl tail of a fatty acid chain. For instance, ω3 desaturase creates a double bond between the third and fourth carbon atom from the methyl end. In other words, it creates an omega-3fatty acid.
Omega-6 derivatives, like Arachidonic-Acid, a polyunsaturated fatty acid present in the phospholipids of cell membranes, is an important inflammatory mediator involved in many molecular and cellular functions under physiological and pathological conditions.
Omega-3 derivatives act as direct vasodilator by acting on smooth muscle to cause dilation of blood vessels. In addition, they inhibit platelet aggregation. They also suppress T cell receptor signaling and proliferation, and may play a role in resolution of inflammation. 87
Studies have shown that EPA and DHA are important for proper fetal development, including neuronal, retinal, and immune function. EPA and DHA may affect many aspects of cardiovascular function including inflammation, peripheral artery disease, major coronary events, and anti-coagulation. 88
The Omega 6 fatty acids are for the innate immune response, which is immediate (inflammation, fever, platelet formation), and Omega-3 is for the adoptive immune response, which is specific to the pathogen. It takes longer, but is more precise and causes no inflammation.
Image: Omega-3, 6 and 9 molecular structures, Names and Molecular structures of commonly available Omega-3, 6 and 9 fatty acids90
Research shows Omega-3-ALA lowers the risk of heart disease, and fights cancer, inflammation, depression, dementia, and arthritis.
It improves heart health by managing cholesterol, triglyceride, and blood pressure levels91,reduces weight and waist size, decreases liver fat and supports infant brain development,
There is even research that suggests that Omega-3-ALA can help with prion disease. It has been found to be useful against Covid-19 as well.92
A study done December 8, 2020 says:
Because each antioxidant exhibits differing sub-cellular distribution, various mechanisms of action, preferential affinity for diverse types of free radicals a mixture of micronutrients containing vitamin A, mixed carotenoids, vitamin C, alpha-tocopheryl acetate, a-tocopheryl succinate, vitamin D3, alpha-lipoic acid, n-acetyl cysteine, coenzyme Q10, L-carnitine, Omega-3-fatty acids, curcumin, resveratrol, all B-vitamins, selenomethionine, and zinc is proposed.
The best way to get vitamin A is through Beta-carotene. 95
You can find the best sources for vitamin C in Chapter 8.3.Beta-carotene a known anticarcinogenic, 1926
Find the best way to get Vitamin D 96 in Chapter 7.5.2. Vitamin D Cluster: a. Vitamin D through Sunlight, b. Vitamin B5 for Co Enzyme A for cholesterol, c. Calcium, d. Magnesium, e. Vitamin K2, f. Lysine. g. Phosphorus h. Sulfuri. Zinc
Combine Curcumin with black pepper for optimum absorption 97.
Find the B Vitamins. in the article in the footnote98
Find the best Zinc sources 99 in Chapter 7.5.2.i. Zinc.
1.7. Ratio’s of Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA in different organs
While Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA are essential fatty acids, which means the body cannot make them itself, the Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA derivatives are not essential, The liver synthesizes EPA and DHA from Omega-3-ALA and ARA and G LA from Omega-6-LA. Omega-3 and Omega 6 are in all the cell membranes in a ratio from
1 Omega-3: between 1 and 2 Omega-6 in the brains to
Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA in Skin, Hair and Nails
Skin and Nails
15 % of the cell membranes of skin consist of essential fatty acids, of which more than 98% is Omega-6 fatty acids and less than 2% is Omega-3 fatty acids.
The major function of the skin is to form a barrier between the internal milieu and the hostile external environment. A permeability barrier that prevents the loss of water and electrolytes is essential for life on land. The permeability barrier is mediated primarily by lipid enriched lamellar membranes that are localized to the extracellular spaces of the stratum corneum. These lipid enriched membranes have a unique structure and contain approximately 50% ceramides, 25% cholesterol, and 15% free fatty acids with very little phospholipid. 101
Linoleic acid (LA) is the most abundant PUFA present in the epidermis 102
Omega-3 EFAs comprise less than 2% of total epidermal fatty acids103104
Although they do not appreciably accumulate in the skin, Omega-3 fatty acids serve an important immunomodulatory role 105. Moreover, dietary supplementation can enrich long chain n-3 fatty acids in the epidermis, significantly altering the fatty acid composition and eicosanoid content of the skin . 106
Omega-6 (n-6) and omega-3 (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) play a critical role in normal skin function and appearance. 107
Metabolism of the essential fatty acids (EFAs), linoleic acid (LA; 18:2n-6) and α-linolenic acid (ALA; 18:2n-3), is limited in the skin; long-chain derivatives of LA and ALA are therefore considered conditionally essential nutrients for skin. 108
The omega-6 PUFAs have a particular role in structural integrity and barrier function of the skin. 109
Both omega-6 and omega-3 PUFAs give rise to potent signaling molecules, called eicosanoids, which influence the inflammatory response in skin. 110
Both topical application and oral supplementation are effective means of delivering EFAs to the skin and systemic circulation. 111
Consuming oils rich in n-6 and n-3 fatty acids can alter the fatty acid composition and eicosanoid content of the epidermis. 112
Dietary supplementation and topical application of certain omega-3 PUFAs attenuates UV-induced photodamage, extrinsic signs of skin aging, and inflammatory skin responses. 113
Dietary supplementation with certain omega-6 fatty acids alleviates symptoms associated with skin sensitivity and inflammatory skin disorders. 114
Omega-6 (n-6) and omega-3 (n-3) essential fatty acids (EFAs) are crucial to skin function and appearance. Both dietary and topical supplementation with EFAs can have profound effects on the fatty acid composition and eicosanoid milieu of the skin. As a result, addition of various EFA-rich oils can modulate the inflammatory response in both dermal and epidermal layers of the skin. Supplementation with n-3 fatty acids in particular exerts protection from photodamage and photoaging. There is some evidence that n-3 supplementation adversely affects wound healing, but further research is necessary to address this question. N-6 EFAs are required for skin barrier function and structural integrity. Supplementation with n-6 fatty acids alleviates symptoms associated with skin sensitivity and inflammatory skin disorders. The mechanism by which EFAs influence skin reactions is likely through changes in the ratio of pro- and anti-inflammatory eicosanoids derived from EFA precursors. N-6 and n-3 fatty acids compete for the same enzymes; thus supplementation with specific EFAs can alter the corresponding metabolites, significantly influencing skin function and appearance. 115
Nails are similar to skin.116 and so the same rules apply: Omega-6-LA for growth, Omega-3-ALA against inflammation. 117
Hair
Omega-6-LA, orLinoleic Acid treatment also increases several growth factors, such as vascular endothelial growth factor, insulin-like growth factor-1, hepatocyte growth factor, and keratinocyte growth factor, in a dose-dependent manner. Besides, Omega-6-LA significantly inhibits Dickkopf-related protein expression (DKK-1), a primary alopecia signaling by dihydrotestosterone. Omega-6-LA treatment may alleviate a testosterone-induced signaling molecule and induces HFDPCs growth by activating Wnt/β-catenin signaling. 118119
1.7.a. The first meal of the day, Eat Parent Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA in the same ratio as the organ you want to heal.
1:4 for cardiovascular disease and it is also associated with a 70% decrease in total mortality, so that is 1 tablespoon of flax seeds and 4 table spoons of sunflower seeds.
1:2,5 reduced rectal cell proliferation in patients with colorectal cancer. So that’s 1 tablespoon of flax seeds and 2,5 tablespoons of sunflower seeds, whereas a ratio of 1: 4 with the same amount of Omega-3 PUFA ((Poly Unsaturated Fatty Acid) had no effect. Hemp seeds already have this ratio.
1:2,5 in women with breast cancer is associated with decreased risk. That’s 1 tablespoon of flax seeds and 2,5 tablespoons of sunflower seeds. Hemp seeds already have this ratio.
A ratio of between 1: 2 and 1:3 suppresses inflammation in patients with rheumatoid arthritis,That’s 1 tablespoon of flax seeds and between 2 and 3 tablespoons of sunflower seeds.
A ratio of 1:5 has a beneficial effect on patients with asthma, That corresponds with 1 tablespoon of flax seeds and 5 tablespoons of sunflower seeds. whereas a ratio of 1:10 has adverse consequences.
No ideal ratio for eyes is given, but given the fact that eyes do need a high amount of DHA and EPA and given the relation between eyes and brains122, and seeing how important DHA and EPA are to eyes, and those are Omega-3-ALA derivatives, probably 1:between 1 and 2123would be a good one to go by, so that is one tablespoon of flax seeds for every 1,5 tablespoons of sunflower seeds.
You get a feel for it, since the right balance makes you feel wonderful, but too much Omega-6-LA gives you chest pains and too much Omega-3-ALA can give headaches, so then you can adjust the balance accordingly. So if you feel chest pains, heighten Omega-3-ALA levels by taking some extra flax seeds. And if you feel light headed or have a head ache, take some extra Omega-6-LA by taking some extra sunflower seeds, keeping the 5 gram max for Omega-3-ALA, which is 2, 5 table spoons of flax seed into account.
Remember. the minimum RDA (Recommended Daily Allowance) of Omega3 ALA is 1 gram, the maximum is 5 grams.
1 tablespoon of flax seed has 2 grams of Omega-3-ALA and half a gram of Omega-6-LA.
So the minimum amount of 1 gram of Omega-3-ALA daily corresponds to half a tablespoon of flax seed, and the maximum amount for Omega-3-ALA is set at 5 grams a day, which translates to 2,5 tablespoons of flax seeds.
The recommended ratio between Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA is between 1:2,5 and 1:6.5 according to the disease you are trying to treat or prevent.
Now, conveniently, Sunflower seeds have 2 grams of Omega-6-LA per tablespoon.
So that makes them ideal to balance the Omega-3-ALA in flax seeds and Omega-6-LA in sunflower seeds with one another.
My favourite way: eat raw organic flax seeds for Omega-3-ALA and raw organic sunflower seeds for Omega-6-LA with breakfast.124
If you want to use sesame oil instead of sunflower seeds as an Omega-6-LA source, please make sure to use cold pressed oil from raw sesame seeds.
The minimum RDA of Omega-3-ALA is 1 gram, the maximum is 5 grams. Flax seed has 2 grams of Omega-3-ALA per tablespoon. So the minimum amount of 1 gram of Omega-3-ALA corresponds to half a tablespoon of flax seed. and the maximum amount for Omega-3 is set at 5 grams a day, which translates to 2,5 tablespoons of flax seeds.
According to the following chart, one tablespoon of Sesame oil contains about 5,5 grams of Omega 6, which means Sesame oil has 2,5 times more Omega-6-LA than flax seed has Omega-3-ALA,
All values are per tablespoon and based on the USDA’s Food Composite Database (1)
So with 1 tablespoon of flax seeds, you have 2 grams of Omega-3, and with one tablespoon of sesame oil, you have 5,5 grams of Omega 6,LA which gives you a 1: 2,25 ratio of Omega-3 to omega 6.
With one table spoon of flax seed, you would need 1.4 tablespoons of sesame oil to get to a 1:4 Omega-3-ALA: Omega-6-LA ratio.
The recommended ratio between Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA is between 1:1 and 1:2,5 according to some sources and 1:1 to 1:4 according to others, but science has shown that eating Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA in the same balance as the organs that are troubling you gives the most benefit. The Omega-3: 6 ratio in organs varies between 1:2,5 and 1.6,5. If you look that up you can find the Omega-3 to omega 6 ratios in different organs and adjust the ratio in which you take Omega-3 to omega 6 with that, and take the ratio that corresponds with the organs that need most care. If you have heart problems, 1:4, lung problems 1:5.
For instance, in the heart the Omega-3-ALA to 6 LA ratio is 1:4. Translated to flax seeds and sunflower seeds, that would be 4 tablespoons of sunflower seeds for every tablespoon of flax seeds. With Sesame oil that would be 1,5 tablespoons of Sesame oil with every tablespoon of flax seed to get the 1:4 ratio Omega-3 to omega 6.
1 tablespoon of sesame seeds is equal to 8.87 grams.
That means it contains about 4 grams of Omega-6-LA.
One table spoon of flax seed and one table spoon of sesame seeds gives you a 1:2 ratio of Omega-3-ALA; Omega-6-LA.
A tablespoon of sesame seed has 4 grams of Omega-6-LA, so that’s 1:2 Omega-3-ALA to Omega-6-LA ratio if you take that with a tablespoon of flax seed. If you want a 1:4 ratio, you need to take 2 tablespoons of sesame seeds with every table spoon of flax seeds.
Always pay close attention to how you feel and play with the balance until you feel your best.
To recapitulate:
This is the balance in which Omega-3 and Omega-6 is found in the cell membranes of the cells in organs. Eating Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA in that balance often heals ailments in those area’s:
Omega-3-ALA to Omega-6-LA balance in different body tissues and organs:
Here are some of the Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA rich foods along with how much extra Omega 6 you have when you have 2 grams of Omega-3-ALA and how much extra Omega-3-ALA you get with 2 grams of Omega-6-LA, so you know what to add to it to get the balance right.
Just to be sure, I left out the ones that need to be heated, all though it seems that Omega-6-LA can take heat. After all, there is Omega-6-LA in organic, cold pressed olive oil, and that hardly forms transfats when heated139. And while the Omega-3-ALA derivatives DHA and EPA cannot be heated at all, and deteriorate at temperatures as low as 50 degrees Celsius,
Many Poly unsaturated Omega-3-ALA oils go rancid quickly and are sensitive to light and heat, so store them cool and dark and pay attention to the expiration date, and especially to your nose and tastebuds. If it smells bad it is, bad no matter whjat the expiratiion date says. Something may have gone wrong somewhere. So don’t take the risk, just don’t eat itif it’s not fresh and good. Oils can’t be reheated or reused. The fats turn into transfats142 and they become toxic instead of healthy143. So the seeds are always to be preferred, and even if you soak those or grind the, you need to consume them within 20 minutes, or they too become unhealthy.
Also beware when you give them and in which balance with Omega-6-LA. Omega-3-ALA competes with Omega–6-LA for enzymes, and that can be problematic during labour, when the Oxytocin Omega-6-LA gives cannot be sufficiently produced for labor. Omega-3-ALA overload can also cause immune function impairment when Omega-6-LA is crowded out and thus cannot provide the necessary immediate immune response.
So eat the right balance of Omega–3-ALA and Omega-6-LA for the organs you are targeting during breakfast and eat as much Omega-6-LA as you like during the rest of the day. It will only strengthen your gut lining, artery lining, skin, hair and nails
When you feel your heart, take some extra Omega-3-ALA. It dilutes your arteries and thins your blood and prevents blood clots. 144
If you have a head ache, take some extra Omega-6-LA, like sunflower seeds, A higher intake of linoleic acid may protect against ischemic stroke, possibly through potential mechanisms of decreased blood pressure, reduced platelet aggregation, and enhanced deformability of erythrocyte cells.145
The Inuit are evidence that there must be Parent Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA in meat. After all, they have no access to seeds for the most part of the year.
Hunted animals, including birds, caribou, seals, walrus, polar bears, whales, and fish provide all the nutrition for the Inuit for at least 10 months of the year. And in the summer season people gather a few plant foods such as berries, grasses, tubers, roots, stems, and seaweed.150
Poultry products show a high content of Omega-6 acids (19.54%) and low content of stearic (8.22%) acid. Pork, poultry products, and beef liver presented a considerable amount of Linoleic-Acid11.85%, 19.54%, and 12.09%, respectively 151.
Ptarmigan was one of the only land birds regularly eaten by Inuit. This bird helped to improve an otherwise meager subsistence diet throughout the winter until caribou hunting began in springtime.152
The primary EFA for birds is Linoleic-Acid, as it is for mammals153 A total of 52 samples from six wildlife species were collected in the areas of Chisasibi, Waswanipi and Mistissini, of which 35 were from birds (white partridge and Canada goose) and 17 were from land animals (beaver, moose, caribou and black bear). Results: Alpha-Linolenic-Acid (ALA) was the most common n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) in all samples except for the black bear flesh, in which it was docosapentaenoic-acid (DPAn-3). In white partridge, beaver and caribou flesh, PUFAs (mainly n-6) were the most common category of fats while in goose, moose and black bear flesh, monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) predomin. .
To be complete I will mention meat and fish ratio’s of Omega-3: Omega 6 as well, but with these it is not clear which percentage is Parent Omega-3 and Omega 6, and which percentage is it’s derivatives DHA, EPA and ARA.
Remember: Omega-3-ALA derivatives DHA and EPA cannot be heated at all, and deteriorate at temperatures as low as 48.8degrees Celsius,. So unless you are eating fish completely raw, the Omega 3 levels of fish are theoretical, since the heat used to prepare the fish destroys the DHA and EPA.
That’s why fish and meat are not included in the Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA diagrams.
So that’s that then? The end of the Covid-19 measures?
If only.
Getting undamaged Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA through diet is easy and unpatentable, so we don’t have to expect those who want to make a profit from pharmaceuticals initiate or support it.
Even doctors are failing to distinguish between the damaged and undamaged Omega-6-LA.
Even if doctors 156who give an excellent explanation of how Omega-6-LA deactivates SARS CoV-2, they still use studies that confuse damaged Omega-6-LA with whole Omega-6-LA.
So the biases against dietary Omega-6-LA as well as all the misinformation need to be dealt with.
1.13. The biases against dietary Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA
What are those biases?
1.That all vegetable oils are a source of Omega-6-LA.
6-LA. It also works against a soar throat, and kills the virus. Mix it 1:1 with apple cider vinegar.157, like you would for a salad dressing, and take some for soothing a soar throat.
2. That Omega-6-LA is harmful
It is not. Damaged Omega-6-LA is harmful, as well as not balancing Omega-6-LA with Omega-3-ALA.158
3. That plant based Omega-3-ALA is inferior to fish oil, because only 5 % is absorbed in the body.
This comes from the misconception that Omega-3-ALA needs to be transformed into EPA and DHA in order to be absorbed in the body. It does not. In fact all cell membranes have Omega-3 -ALA and Omega-6-LA in ratio’s varying from anOmega-3-ALA to Omega-6-LA ratio of 1:2.5 in the brain to 1:6,5 in muscle tissue.159
4. That Fish oil is a good source of Omega-3.
It is not, and not just because of the reasons mentioned in point 3. Fish oil contains no Alpha-Linolenic-Acid,the parent Omega-3 , just the Omega-3 derivatives EPA and DHA, while we need Omega-3-ALAfor our cell membranes, just as we need Omega-6-LA. The body can do nothing with excess DHA and EPA, while when we eat plant based Omega-3-ALA it makes as much as it needs and uses the rest of the Omega-3-ALA for the cell membranes. Besides, fish either contains mercury when it is caught in the wild or antibiotics and gmo’s from the food it gets if it is farmed. That asidefrom the environmental damage and the suffering for the fish that comes with fish consumption160. Even if you would want DHA and EPA, fish is not a good source, because EPA and DHA degrade at 50 degrees Celsius.161
The side effects of taking EPA and DHA rather than Alpha-Linolenic-Acid are:162
High Blood Sugar, Bleeding, Low Blood Pressure, Diarrhea, Acid Reflux, Stroke, Vitamin A Toxicity, Insomnia.
Beware that research papers often don’t distinguish between Alpha Linolenic Acid and EPA and DHA, while there is a big difference.
Alpha-Linolenic-Acid does not have these side effects. Just positive effects163:
5. That LDL cholesterol is bad and that you have to take anti cholesterol medication to limit it.
LDL cholesterol works as a buffer to keep cell membrane fluidity at an optimal level in the cell membrane. The problem is that cholesterol is much worse at diffusing oxygen than unsaturated fatty acids are. So to limit the need for cholesterol it is better to eat enough Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA in the right balance so cholesterol does not need to step in correct the cell membrane fluidity. Taking medication to stop cholesterol production is tackling the problem from the wrong end.
Cholesterol is also necessary for myelin formation, for Vitamin D synthesis from the sun and for the transportation of Essential Fatty Acids through the blood stream.
1.14. To Recapitulate:
Research has shown that Linoleic-Acid, locks the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, making it unable to infect cells.
However, there are guidelines on how to take Linoleic-Acid
It must be in balance with Alpha Linolenic Acid. It must also be in an undamaged form, otherwise it will have the opposite effect. And you need to take it the same balance as is in the organs: between 1:2,5 and 1:6,5 Omega-3-ALA: Omega6 -LA. An easy way to do this is with flax seeds and sunflower seeds, because they have the same levels of Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA so they are easy to tweak and take in the right balance.
All you need to really prevent and cure Covid-19 is sunflower seeds, flax seed seed, olive leaf, olive oil, eucalyptus globulus and mentha arvensis, all natural, readily available and inexpensive remedies that are also good for any chronic disease, like diabetes, 165cardio-vascular disease, MS, gout, adhd, you name it. And for shortness of breath, plantain and grapes are wonderful because of the Benzophenone levels.166
The results of a number of scientific studies suggest that Omega-3-ALA fatty acids contribute to measuring and restricting inflammatory symptoms, whereas omega-6 acids (and saturated fats) give free range to inflammatory responses and amplify allergic reactions. 167
It is difficult to find out whether or not you can heat Omega-3-ALA, because DHA and EPA are highly unstable, and deteriorate already at 50 degrees Celsius.168 It seems that Flaxseed oil also can’t be heated, and degrades very quickly. Some sources say within 6 weeks after having been pressed, other sources say one month after the bottle has been opened.
All sources say Omega-3-ALA cannot be heated because it is a poly unsaturated fat,169 and heating causes trans fats to form170,
But extra virgin Olive oil is considered an excellent cooking oil while it has Omega-6-LA, which is also a poly unsaturated fat. 171
Omega-3-ALA is often confused with its derivatives EPA and DHA, which cannot be heated.
Still all agree that Omega-3-ALA should not be heated. Most oils with Omega 6 are not suited for consumption, with extra virgin olive oil as the exception, which can be heated. 172
A 1: 4 ratio of Omega-3-ALA to Omega-6-LA is generally considered the optimum.
An appropriate balance can be an efficient, effective and often necessary way to meet the body’s needs, enhance its daily functions and promote health and longevity.173
For clear overviews of Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA sources and how to eat them in the rightbalance, see chapter 7.2. Find the shortened version in chapter 7.12.d.2
7.2. Linoleic-Acid and Alpha-Linolenic-Acid
Our whole immune system hangs on two essential nutrients we need to get through diet, and that need to be eaten in the right balance: Alpha-Linolenic-Acid or Omega-3-ALA, and Linoleic Acid or Omega-6-LA.
The minimum RDA (Required Daily Allowance) of Alpha Linolenic Acid is 1 gram, the maximum is 5 grams. So 2 grams is right in the middle of those two.
Each organ has its own Omega-3-ALA:6-LA balance.
During the first meal of the day, eat Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA from healthy sources in the right balance. Then for the rest of the day you can eat as much Omega-6-LA as you want.
Sunflower seeds as a Linoleic-Acid source and flax seeds as an Alpha-Linolenic-Acid source in the right balance. Usually 1 table spoon of flax seeds and 4 tablespoons of sunflower seeds a day are a good quantity and balance, but there are many other food sources for Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA as you can see here:
Hemp seeds already have the right balance for the breast and gut and walnuts already have the right balance for the heart.
Emanuel Revici and Johanna Budwig discovered that Omega-3-ALA prevents and cures cancer, and Artemis Simopoulos found that eating Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA in the same balance as diseases organs cured them whereas not eating it in the same balance did not have the same effect.
So the Omega-6-LA RDA depends on the organ you want to target and on how much Omega-3-ALA you took.
Some Omega-3-ALA sources already have the right balance between Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA.
As such, the dietary reference intakes for linoleic acid reports that the adequate intakes (AIs) for women and men between the ages of 19 and 50 y of age are 12 g/d and 17 g/d, respectively. The AI is based on approximate median intakes of healthy individuals in the US population. These amounts are modified to 11 g/d and 14 g/d for women and men, respectively, between the ages of 51 and 70 y of age. The Scientific Advisory Board of the American Heart Association recommends intakes between 5 and 10% of energy for adults to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease.175
Linoleic acid (LA) is critical for healthy looking skin and maintaining the skin barrier.176
There is no upper limit for Omega-6-LA because there is no known omega-6-LA toxicity.177
Here are some tools to be able to get the right balance for each organ through natural sources:
Hemp seeds already have the right balance for the breast and gut. Walnuts already have the right balance for the heart, Mustard seeds already have the right balance for the eyes and brains.
Chia seed oil is called a skin product, not an edible one. 179 That; s why it is n9t included in the list.
You can create the right balance with Omega-6-LA for the organ you want to target using the following tool. Showing how to get to 2 grams of Omega-6-LA, which gives you a base to calculate any desired quantity to balance the Omega-3-ALA.
Another study, published in March 2015 in the Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology, revealed that consuming Omega-3-ALA Omega-6-LA along with antioxidants, acts efficiently against hair loss and improves hair density.180
Concerns have been raised about higher linoleic acid consumption being harmful for heart health because of potential pro-inflammatory and thrombogenic properties. Linoleic acid can be elongated to arachidonic acid and subsequently synthesized to a variety of pro-inflammatory eicosanoids, which may increase Chronic Heart Disease risk. But this speculation is not supported by randomized controlled feeding studies, in which dietary intake of linoleic acid was not found to increase plasma levels of arachidonic acid or inflammatory markers. On the contrary, some studies have found anti-inflammatory effects of diets higher in linoleic acid compared to those higher in saturated fat. 181
So how does this factor in with Simopoulos’s results that showed better results when Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA were eaten in the same balance as the organ you wanted healing for?
In theory a good approach could be to start the day with eating the Omega’\ s in the right balance for the organ you wish to target, and then the rest of the day as much Omega-86LA as you like, since the body has excellent ways to deal with excess Omega-6-LA, as it promotes skin, hair and nail health.
This because how Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA take each others place when one of the two is in short supply may be similar to how cholesterol jumps in to correct membrane fluidity when there is a lack of essential poly unsaturated fats.
So during the first meal of the day you will want to make sure that the organs are saturated with the fats in the right balance so that one will not have to replace the other.
But the, the rest of the day you can just eat as much Omega -6- LA foods as you like. And if you get feel unwell, use some extra Omega-6-LA if you get headaches and Omega-3-ALA if you get heart aches.
Any warnings against overdosing on Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA can theoretically be attributed to the fact that not all studies use proper Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA sources and they don’t distinguish between the parent forms and derivative, so that’s something that still needs to be researched properly.
But since research does confirm that Omega-6-LA has no harmful effects in whatever quantity, and the body has beneficial ways to deal with any excess by strengthening hair and nails,you can eat all the Omega-6-LA you like after you had the Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA for breakfast in the proper balance to prevent Omega-6 -LA to take Omega03-ALA’s place in the cell membrane and vice versa.
Nuts are the best sources of Omega-6-LA, but they are also in seeds:
Another strength of Linoleic-Acid and Alpha-Linolenic-Acid is that they carry substances to the cell membranes. Revici used this with Sulfur and Imre Bergen mentioned it as a possibility for anything used to treat Covid-19.
Be an Omega Pro. When there is inflammation, take more Omega-3-ALA. Also when there is an allergic reaction. Also when you feel you may have heart problems. Just some extra flaxseed thins the blood and prevents bookd clots. The. When you have a headache, take more Omega-6-LA. Omega-6-LA is also what you want during labour, not Omega-3-ALA, because that would block the contractions, since Omega-3-ALA competes with Omega-6-LA. You have to be very aware when you take what.These are powerful tools for health and well being. Use them wisely.
Chapter 4.Essential Fatty Acids and Cell Membrane Fluidity
4.1. Introduction: Fatty acids reside in the cell membranes.
The cell membrane is made of lipids of which Linoleic-Acid and Alpha Linolenic Acid185 are the only ones that can’ t be synthesized by the body. They need to be ingested.
A quarter to a third of the cell membrane is made of Essential fatty Acids, Omega 3-ALA and Omega-6-LA.
While lipids are the fundamental structural elements of membranes, proteins are responsible for carrying out specific membrane functions. Most plasma membranes consist of approximately 50% lipid and 50% protein by weight, with the carbohydrate portions of glycolipids and glycoproteins constituting 5 to 10% of the membrane mass. Since proteins are much larger than lipids, this percentage corresponds to about one protein molecule per every 50 to 100 molecules of lipid. In 1972, Jonathan Singer and Garth Nicolson proposed the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure, which is now generally accepted as the basic paradigm for the organization of all biological membranes. In this model, membranes are viewed as two-dimensional fluids in which proteins are inserted into lipid bilayers 186.
This is what a eukaryotic cell membrane, like we have, looks like:
Structure of the cell membrane of a eukaryotic cell187.
4.2.Functions
The plasma membrane is selectively permeable i.e. it allows only selected substances to pass through.
It protects the cells from shock and injuries.
The fluid nature of the membrane allows the interaction of molecules within the membrane. It is also important for secretion, cell growth, and division etc.
It allows transport of molecules across the membrane. This transport can be of two types:
Active transport – This transport occurs against the concentration gradient and therefore, requires energy. It also needs carrier proteins and is a highly selective process.
Passive transport – This transport occurs along the concentration gradient and therefore, does not require energy. Thus, it does not need carrier proteins and is not selective188.
4,3, Membrane Fluidity
The plasma membrane is a fluid combination of phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins. Carbohydrates attached to lipids (glycolipids) and to proteins (glycoproteins) extend from the outward-facing surface of the membrane189.
The main difference between the cell membrane and plasma membrane is that the cell membrane is the boundary of the cell whereas plasma membrane can be the boundary of a cell or an organelle. Both cell membrane and plasma membrane are selectively permeable to molecules.190
Carbohydrates attached to lipids (glycolipids) and to proteins (glycoproteins) extend from the outward-facing surface of the membrane191.
4.4.We have eukaryotic cells
A eukaryotic cell is any cell or organism that possesses a clearly defined nucleus.
The eukaryotic cell has a nuclear membrane that surrounds the nucleus, in which the well-defined chromosomes (bodies containing the hereditary material) are located.192
Examples of organisms consisting of eukaryotic cells are plants, animals, protozoa193, fungi.
Their genetic material is organized in chromosomes. 194All eukaryotic cell membranes consist of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, also those of plants! 195
Prokaryotes are organisms whose cells lack a nucleus and other organelles.
Prokaryotes are divided into two distinct groups: the bacteria and the archaea, which scientists believe have unique evolutionary lineages.
Most prokaryotes are small, single-celled organisms that have a relatively simple structure. 196
4.6. Fatty acids
Fatty acids are organic substances the molecules of which consist of a hydrophilic carboxyl head (a carbon chain, and a hydrophobic methyl tail.
4.7. Saturated fatty acids
Saturated fatty acids (SFAs) are fatty acids whose aliphatic carbon chains are fully saturated with hydrogen atoms or contain only C-C single bond and contain no C=C double bonds.
An aliphatic compound is an organic compound containing carbon and hydrogen joined together in straight chains, branched chains, or non-aromatic rings. It is one of two broad classes of hydrocarbons, the other being aromatic compounds. 197
Aromatic compounds,
Aromatic compounds, are unsaturated chemical compounds characterized by one or more planar rings of atoms joined by covalent bonds of two different kinds. The unique stability of these compounds is referred to as aromaticity. 198 A molecule is aromatic when it adheres to 4 main criteria:
The molecule must be planar, meaning two dimensional.199
The molecule must be cyclic, or round.
Every atom in the aromatic ring must have a p orbital, which means that the electrons have a dumbbell shaped orbit.200 That looks like this.201
The ring must contain pi electrons.202 A pi electron is an electron which resides in the pi bond(s) of a double bond or a triple bond, or in a conjugated p orbital. 203 Pi bonds are when the lobe of one atomic orbital overlaps another. 204Orbital lobe (lobe): A section of orbital bordered by one or more orbital nodes.205 A node is a place where there is zero probability of finding an electron. 206
The word aliphatic comes from the ancient Greek word ἄλειφαρ, pronounced aleiphar, and which means “oil or ointment”. 207
UFAs are again classified as monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and
MUFAs, or monounsaturated fatty acids, contain only one C=C double bond.
4.8. Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
(PUFAs):
PUFAs, or polyunsaturated fatty acids, contain more than one C=C double bond.
Because of the presence of C-C single bonds or C=C double bonds, they have characteristic structural features and differences in physical as well as chemical properties and have significant roles in the constitution of cellular membranes.
Omega (ω) is used to denote the position of double bonds from the methyl end of the fatty acid.
Colored curved arrows =biological conversion is possible from the precursor by the actions of elongase/desaturase enzymes. Black arrow =indicates the position(s) of double bond.
Which fatty acids does it have?
The straight chain structural features of the most common fatty acids. Most of them are not essential.
Fatty A cidsynthesis starts with citrate conversion to acetyl-Coenzyme A and the malonyl-Coenzyme A, which is then elongated to form palmitate and other Fatty Acids. Key enzymes in this process are acetyl-Coenzyme A carboxylase (ACC), which catalyzes the DNL (de novo lipogenesis) limiting step reaction, and the Fatty Acid Synthase (FAS). Coenzyme A is synthesized with the help of Vitamin B5, penthonic acid. 210Synthesis of fatty acids occurs in the cytoplasm and endoplasmic reticulum of the cell and is chemically similar to the beta-oxidation process, but with a couple of key differences. The first of these occur in preparing substrates for the reactions that grow the fatty acid. Transport of acetyl-CoA from the mitochondria occurs when it begins to build up. Two molecules can play roles in moving it to the cytoplasm – citrate and acetylcarnitine. Joining of oxaloacetate with acetyl-CoA in the mitochondrion creates citrate which moves across the membrane, followed by action of citrate lyase in the cytoplasm of the cell to release acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate. Additionally, when free acetyl-CoA accumulates in the mitochondrion, it may combine with carnitine and be transported out to the cytoplasm.211 All non essential fatty acids are synthesized in body with the help of Coenzyme A, which is made with the help of Vitamin B5
In this illustration, the hydrophobic methyl (CH4) tails are at the left, the carboxyl (COOH) heads are at the rig
PLA=palmitic acid, non essential,.
STA=stearic acid, non essential
OLA=oleic acid, non essential
LLA= Linoleic-Acid, or Parent Omega-6-LA, an essential fatty acid, which means it must be eaten.
LLN = α-linolenic acid or Parent Omega-3-ALA. It is essential, which means it can only be obtained from diet.
AA=arachidonic acid (a non essential Omega 6 fatty acid. Synthesized in the body from Omega 6LA)
EPA=eicosapentaenoic acid (a non essential Omega-3 fatty acid, only found in the eyes and brains. The body synthesizes it itself from Omega-3 ALA.)
DHA=docosahexaenoic acid.212 (a non essential Omega-3.. .The body synthesizes it itself from Omega-3 ALA.)
4.9. Cell Membrane Fluidity
The composition of a membrane affects its fluidity.
Cell membrane fluidity is affected by fatty acids. Whether the fatty acids are saturated or unsaturated has an effect on membrane fluidity.
Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain, and the maximum amount of hydrogen.
.In their saturated form, the fatty acids in phospholipid tails are saturated with bound hydrogen atoms and there are no double bonds between adjacent carbon atoms.
Saturated lipids result in tails that are relatively straight. Thus, if saturated fatty acids, with their straight tails, are compressed by decreasing temperatures, they press in on each other, making a dense and fairly rigid membrane.
The absence of double bonds decreases fluidity, making the membrane very rigid and tightly stacked
In contrast, unsaturated fatty acids do not contain a maximal number of hydrogen atoms, although they do contain some double bonds between adjacent carbon atoms. Unsaturated fatty acids have at least one double bond, creating a “kink” in the chain.
The double bond increases fluidity.
4.13. A double bond results in a bend of approximately 30 degrees in the string of carbons.
While the individual lipids may be more rigid, membranes made with such lipids are more fluid and have lower melting points, which means less thermal energy is required to achieve the same level of fluidity as membranes made with lipids with saturated hydrocarbon chains.
If unsaturated fatty acids are compressed, the “kinks” in their tails elbow adjacent phospholipid molecules away, maintaining some space between the phospholipid molecules.
This “elbow room” helps to maintain fluidity in the membrane at temperatures at which membranes with saturated fatty acid tails in their phospholipids would “freeze” or solidify. 215
Lipid chains with carbon-carbon double bonds (unsaturated) are more rigid than lipids that are saturated with hydrogens, as double bonds cannot freely turn. Because of this rigidity, unsaturated double bonds make it harder for the lipids to pack together by putting kinks into the otherwise straightened hydrocarbon chain. 217
Lipids with shorter chains are less stiff and less viscous because they are more susceptible to changes in kinetic energy du dueto their smaller molecular size and they have less surface area to undergo stabilizing London forces with neighboring hydrophobic chains.
The London dispersion force is the weakest intermolecular force. The London dispersion force is a temporary attractive force that results when the electrons in two adjacent atoms occupy positions that make the atoms form temporary dipoles. This force is sometimes called an induced dipole-induced dipole attraction. London forces are the attractive forces that cause nonpolar substances to condense to liquids and to freeze into solids when the temperature is lowered sufficiently.218
Incorporation of particular lipids, such as sphingomyelin, into synthetic lipid membranes is known to stiffen a membrane.
Such membranes can be described as “a glass state, i.e., rigid but without crystalline order”.
4.15.Temperature
Another way to increase membrane fluidity is to heat up the membrane. Lipids acquire thermal energy when they are heated up; energetic lipids move around more, arranging and rearranging randomly, making the membrane more fluid. At low temperatures, the lipids are laterally ordered and organized in the membrane, and the lipid chains are mostly in the all-trans configuration and pack well together. So when yo get a fever, membrane fluidity increases, easing the expulsion of toxins as well as the availability of anti toxins.
The melting temperature of a membrane is defined as the temperature across which the membrane transitions from a crystal-like to a fluid-like organization, or vice versa. This phase transition is not an actual state transition, but the two levels of organizations are very similar to a solid and liquid state.
The membrane is in crystalline phase when the level of order in the bi-layer is high and the fluidity is low.
T_{m}}” width=”2″ height=”2″> The membrane is in liquid-crystal phase when the membrane is less ordered and more fluid.
At 37°C, this is the state of the membrane. The correcting presence of cholesterol, however, allows for the membrane stabilization and a more compact organization
The mosaic characteristic of the membrane helps the plasma membrane remain fluid. The integral proteins and lipids exist in the membrane as separate but loosely-attached molecules. 221
However, because of its mosaic nature, a very fine needle can easily penetrate a plasma membrane without causing it to burst. The membrane will flow and self-seal when the needle is extracted.222
If saturated fatty acids are compressed by decreasing temperatures, they press in on each other, making a dense and fairly rigid membrane.
If unsaturated fatty acids are compressed, the “kinks” in their tails push adjacent phospholipid molecules away, which helps maintain fluidity in the membrane.
The ratio of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids determines the fluidity in the membrane at cold temperatures.
Cholesterol functions as a buffer, preventing lower temperatures from inhibiting fluidity and preventing higher temperatures from increasing fluidity.223
4.16. Cholesterol corrects fluidity
Another factor that keeps the membrane fluid is cholesterol. Cell membrane fluidity is also affected by cholesterol. Cholesterol can correct the cell membrane fluidity, making it more rigid when it tends to get too fluid and making it more fluid when it tends to get too rigid,
Cholesterol lies alongside the phospholipids in the membrane and tends to dampen the effects of temperature on the membrane. Thus, cholesterol functions as a buffer, preventing lower temperatures or a high amount of saturated fats from inhibiting fluidity and preventing higher temperatures or an overdose of unsaturated fats, which can happen if you eat the derivatives rather than the parent forms, from increasing fluidity too much. Cholesterol extends in both directions the range of temperature in which the membrane is appropriately fluid and, consequently, functional. Cholesterol also serves other functions, such as organizing clusters of transmembrane proteins into lipid rafts.224
Lipid rafts are plasma membrane microdomains enriched in cholesterol and sphingolipids that are involved in the lateral compartmentalization of molecules at the cell surface. Internalization of ligands and receptors by these domains occurs via a process defined as raft-dependent endocytosis. 225
Sphingolipids are enriched in the Central Nervous System (CNS) and display multiple biological functions. They participate in tissue development, cell recognition and adhesion, and act as receptors for toxins.226
Viscosity of the membrane can affect the oxygenation of the cell227, rotation and diffusion of proteins and other bio-molecules within the membrane, there-by affecting their functions.
You want to prevent cholesterol from having to step in though, because cholesterol is a much worse diffuser of oxygen than fatty acids are.
It is however a very bad idea to take cholesterol inhibitors, because in doing so you sabotage the body’s mechanism of regulating cell rigidity.
4.17. The importance of oxygenation
The availability of oxygen (O2) within cells and tissues has significant biomedical implications. Indeed, cellular oxygenation is a critical parameter in tumor therapy, anesthesia, wound healing, reperfusion injury, adipose tissue dysfunction, as well as brain function and possibly neuronal hypometabolism. Tissue-level hypoxia may select tumor cells resistant to apoptosis, and hypoxic cycling may favor tumor aggression and resistance to therapy [. Moreover, hypoxia is a major barrier to progress in tissue engineering, as 3D-printed cells toward the center of engineered constructs tend to languish and die because of poor diffusional oxygen delivery. 228
Oxygen is known to play a key role in cellular energetics. Both oxidation and other forms of energy production depend on a continuous supply of oxygen to the cells. In mammals, oxygen is extracted from the atmospheric air in the lungs, and carried by the bloodstream through the circulation to the tissue, where it is utilized mainly within the mitochondria. 229
How important are the resistances to transport provided by various membranes (red blood cell, endothelial cell, parenchymal cell) along the pathway? Does oxygen cross these membranes by pure diffusion, or is the diffusion facilitated by a carrier? 230
Krogh laid the foundation of the theory of oxygen transport to tissue. He proposed that oxygen is transported in the tissue by passive diffusion driven by gradients of oxygen tension.231
Under normal conditions in human circulation, each milliliter of blood carries about 0.2 ml of oxygen. In arterial blood, about 98% of this oxygen is reversibly bound to a protein, hemoglobin, contained within the red blood cells, and the remaining oxygen is in a free form, dissolved in both blood plasma and in the hemoglobin solution inside the red blood cells. 232
The total amount of oxygen carried by blood as 0.204 ml of oxygen per milliliter blood. Only 1.5% of oxygen is in the dissolved form provided that hemoglobin is completely saturated. 233
Krogh believed that red cell cytoplasm and the cell membrane can present a large resistance to oxygen diffusion. 234 Later researchers thought the red cell membrane resistance constitutes only a small fraction of the total resistance to oxygen transport, whereas the main portion of the remaining resistance is located within the incompletely stirred diffusion boundary layer immediately outside the erythrocyte surface. 235Huxley and Kutchai 236expressed the total diffusion resistance outside the red cell cytosol as the sum of the membrane transport resistance and the diffusion boundary layer resistance. The best estimate from this study showed that only 5% of the total resistance could be attributed to the membrane. If it is assumed that all of the resistance is concentrated in the membrane, then the diffusion coefficient for oxygen in the membrane would have to be 1.2·10−7cm2/s, i.e., about 100 times smaller than in water. This conclusion would be in disagreement with the value of D for the membrane measured by the fluorescence quenching of pyrene237. This method predicted a much larger value D = 0.7·10−5 cm2/s, i.e., approximately five times smaller than in water. These results suggest that the membrane poses a negligible resistance to oxygen transport238.
In the capillaries, oxygen is transported within red cells through the solution of hemoglobin, then through the cell membrane and the blood plasma. Since cells and plasma are in motion, both convection and diffusion (free and facilitated) may be important. It was recognized early that the red cell cytosol has a finite resistance to oxygen transport, which results in a gradient of oxygen tension between the interior of the cell and the plasma surrounding the cell (Hartridge and Roughton61). In fact, the rapid-mixing experiments and their analyses discussed above suggest that both the cell interior and the plasma surrounding the cell resist oxygen diffusion, 2391. Transport in Plasma Gaps between Red Blood Cells
Oxygen in the plasma can be transported by both convection and diffusion. 240
Convection is the movement caused within a fluid by the tendency of hotter and therefore less dense material to rise, and colder, denser material to sink under the influence of gravity, which consequently results in transfer of heat. 241
Diffusion, process resulting from random motion of molecules by which there is a net flow of matter from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration242.
A study from1999 could explain the different ideas about oxygen diffusion through cell membranes. It shows that cholesterol inhibits oxygen diffusion.243
A study done in 2021 concludes: The common assumption that oxygen diffuses primarily by way of aqueous pathways is challenged by contemporary understanding of cells and tissues as complex and crowded macromolecular environments. Rather, evidence to date supports a model of lipid-accelerated oxygen diffusion within membranes and lipid droplets held in close proximity by protein contacts.244
Osmosis can cause cell membranes to burst in case of over hydration or too little salt, or to shrivel up when there is too much salt or too little fluid.
4.18. Human cells can burst due to the effects of osmosis.
Water will continue to flow until equilibrium is reached (when the concentration inside the cell is equal to the concentration outside the cell) or when the cell cannot take on any more water and bursts.245Cytolysis, also known as osmotic lysis, occurs when a cell bursts and releases its contents into the extracellular environment due to a great influx of water into the cell, far exceeding the capacity of the cell membrane to contain the extra volume.246 When due to much water intake or too little salt intake the plasma becomes much less salt than the inside of the cell, the cell will keep taking up water until the concentration inside matches that of the outside. A red blood cell will swell and undergo hemolysis (burst) when placed in a hypotonic solution.
When placed in a hypertonic solution, a red blood cell will lose water and undergo crenation (shrivel). 247 When a person consumes an excessive amount of water and cells in their brain start to swell, the pressure inside their skull increases. This causes the first symptoms of water intoxication, which include:
A buildup of fluid in the brain is called cerebral edema. This can affect the brain stem and cause central nervous system dysfunction.
In severe cases, water intoxication can cause seizures, brain damage, a coma, and even death248.
So what we eat and drink and how much we eat and drink is of essential importance to cell membrane fluidity and even cell membrane survival.
Unsaturated Fatty Acids don’t only accelerate oxygen diffusion through cell membranes, they also accelerate oxygen transportation through plasma.
Conclusion to Chapter 4
Fatty acids reside in the cell membranes.
The cell membrane is made of lipids of which Linoleic-Acid and Alpha Linolenic Acid249 are the only ones that can’ t be synthesized by the body. They need to be ingested.
A quarter to a third of the cell membrane is made of Essential fatty Acids, Omega 3-ALA and Omega-6-LA.
The hydrophylic heads are on the outside and the hydrophobic tail is in the middle of the cell membrane.
Omega 3-ALA and Omega-6-LA in the cell membrane.250
This is the case in all eukaryotic cells, cells with a defined nucleus. All plants and animals have this.
If we are all bags of water, as Nobel Prize winner Jacques Dubochet says, then the cell membranes are the bags. They are semi-permeable bags that need a certain fluidity to let all the nutrients in and all the waste materials out.
It is very important for our health that our cell membranes become neither to fluid or to rigid.
It is also important that they are permeable.
Fluidity versus rigidity
Poly unsaturated fatty acids, like Omega-3-ALA and Omega-6-LA and their derivatives, make the cell membrane more fluid.
Saturated fatty acids, which the body makes itself, make the cell membrane more rigid.
Permeability
Transfats are even less permeable than that, and suffocate the cell.
Poly unsaturated fatty acids give the cell membrane elbow room for nutrients to pass through.
Drinking too much water can make cell membranes burst and be deadly.
Temperature
Higher temperatures make the cell membrane more fluid and permeable.
That’s the reason we have fevers when there are pathogens. So that the nutrients to heal us can pass our cell membranes easily and the waste materials can be disposed of easily.
Cholesterol acts as a correction mechanism for cell membrane fluidity. Cholesterol lies alongside the phospholipids in the membrane and tends to dampen the effects of temperature on the membrane.
Thus, cholesterol functions as a buffer, preventing lower temperatures or a high amount of saturated fats from inhibiting fluidity and preventing higher temperatures or an overdose of unsaturated fats, which can happen if you eat the derivatives rather than the parent forms, from increasing fluidity too much.
Cholesterol extends in both directions the range of temperature in which the membrane is appropriately fluid and, consequently, functional. Cholesterol also serves other functions, such as organizing clusters of transmembrane proteins into lipid rafts.
The problem with cholesterol is, however, is that it is 1000 times less permeable for oxygen.
That’s another reason why it is important to eat enough polyunsaturated fatty acids to keep cell membrane fluidity optimal.
And it is another reason why we should not sabotage cholesterol formation by taking statins. If there is nothing to be corrected, cholesterol does not need to jump in. But it is important that iris there in case it is needed, and it is always needed for so many other functions, so stopping its production is always a bad idea, while keeping the cell membrane fluidity by eating Omega-3-ALA and Omage-6-LA in the right balance is always a very good idea. hopefully now you know how!
1Glossary of terms, Docosahexaenoic Acid , Karger, 2016, P.C. Calder, Ann Nutr Metab 2016;69(suppl 1):8-21
2Omega-6 fatty acid and Arachidonic Acid (also referred to as ω-6 fatty acids or n-6 fatty acids) are a family of polyunsaturated fatty acids that have in common a final carbon-carbon double bond in th n-6 position, that is, the sixth bond, counting from the methyl end.This is because the number of carbons from the methyl end to the first double bond is six.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7037798/
5Innate immune system: The innate immune system gives the primary response to invaders, as opposed to acquired immunity, which is specific to a certain invader.From Innate Immunity, Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition, Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al.
10Metabolism of Alpha-Linolenic-Acid: The metabolic pathway of conversion of α-linolenic acid to DHA showing the enzymes involved.Docosahexaenoic Acid,Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism2016, Vol.69, Suppl. 1 ,November 2016,Calder P.C , Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, and NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust and University of Southampton, Southampton, UK https://www.karger.com/Article/Fulltext/448262
11Metabolism of Alpha-Linolenic-Acid: The metabolic pathway of conversion of α-linolenic acid to DHA showing the enzymes involved. Docosahexaenoic Acid,Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism2016, Vol.69, Suppl. 1 ,November 2016,Calder P.C , Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, and NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust and University of Southampton, Southampton, UK https://www.karger.com/Article/Fulltext/448262
13endocrine gland,An organ that makes hormones that are released directly into the blood and travel to tissues and organs all over the body. Endocrine glands help control many body functions, including growth and development, metabolism, and fertility. Some examples of endocrine glands are the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands.,NCI’s Dictionary of Cancer Terms NIH, National Cancer Institute, https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/endocrine-gland
15Prolactin is a hormone made by the pituitary gland, a small gland at the base of the brain. Prolactin causes the breasts to grow and make milk during pregnancy and after birth. Prolactin levels are normally high for pregnant women and new mothers. Levels are normally low for nonpregnant women and for men, Medline Plus, https://medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/prolactin-levels/
19Eicosanoids: Formation, Function, and Subclasses, AMBOSS: Medical Knowledge Distilled , October 22, 2018,AMBOSS is driven by its mission to empower all doctors to provide the best possible care. It aims to serve those pursuing medicine as well as those already in the field as an extensive medical knowledge resource., https://youtu.be/-JOn8g8LvwE?t=629
20Prostaglandins: The prostaglandins are a group of lipids made at sites of tissue damage or infection that are involved in dealing with injury and illness. They control processes such as inflammation, blood flow, the formation of blood clots and the induction of labour. You and Your Hormones, Society of Endocrinology, Education Resource, ,https://www.yourhormones.info/hormones/prostaglandins/
21Prostaglandins: The prostaglandins (PG) are a group of physiologically active lipid compounds called eicosanoids , having diverse hormone-like effects in animals. Prostaglandins have been found in almost every tissue in humans and other animals. They are derived enzymatically from the fatty acid Arachidonic-Acid Every prostaglandin contains 20 carbon atoms, including a 5-carbon ring. They are a subclass of eicosanoids and of the prostanoid class of fatty acid derivatives. What are Prostaglandins?Researchgate, Faris S. Kata, https://www.researchgate.net/post/What-are-prostaglandins
24Eicosanoids: Formation, Function, and Subclasses, AMBOSS: Medical Knowledge Distilled , October 22, 2018,AMBOSS is driven by its mission to empower all doctors to provide the best possible care. It aims to serve those pursuing medicine as well as those already in the field as an extensive medical knowledge resource.
25Prostacyclin Prostacyclin (PGI2) is a vasodilator derived from the Arachidonic-Acid pathway after conversion by cyclo-oxygenase, Prostacyclin, Science Direct, From: Basic Science in Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Fourth Edition), 2010
26Prostaglandin I2 (prostacyclin), PMC, January 26, 1980, Kelton JG, Blajchman MA. Prostaglandin I2 (prostacyclin). Can Med Assoc J. 1980 Jan 26;122(2):175-9. PMID: 6988063 ; PMCID: PMC1801769.J. G. Keltonand M. A. Blajchman
32Overview of prostaglandin (PG) synthesis, Adapted from Prostaglandins And Cancer, Researchgate, February 2006, Dingzhi Wang, Raymond N DuBois. The original file did ot mention Omega-6-LA as the source of Arachidonic Acid, and it PGE2, which causes inflammation, as the reason for tumor growth. But research from Artemis Simopoulos showed that eating Omega-5-LA in the correct balance with Omega-3-ALA stopped tumor growth. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Overview-of-prostaglandin-PG-synthesis-and-main-functions-Arachidonic-acid-can-be_fig1_7643103
33Overview of prostaglandin (PG) synthesis, Adapted from Prostaglandins And Cancer, Researchgate, February 2006, Dingzhi Wang, Raymond N DuBois. The original file did ot mention Omega-6-LA as the source of Arachidonic Acid, and it PGE2, which causes inflammation, as the reason for tumor growth. But research from Artemis Simopoulos showed that eating Omega-5-LA in the correct balance with Omega-3-ALA stopped tumor growth. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Overview-of-prostaglandin-PG-synthesis-and-main-functions-Arachidonic-acid-can-be_fig1_7643103
34Physiology, Thromboxane A2, NCBI, Updated: September 14, 2021, Dane Rucker, Amit S. Dhamoon., SUNY Upstate Medical University
35Thromboxane: A substance made by platelets that causes blood clotting and constriction of blood vessels. It also encourages platelet aggregation. There are two thromboxanes. Thromboxane A2 (TXA2) is active but is very unstable and has a half-life of only 30 seconds before it undergoes hhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/platelet-aggregationydrolysis to form thromboxane B2 (TXB2) which is inactive. The thromboxanes are derived from arachidonic acid and are related to prostaglandins. Aspirin acts by inhibiting the COX enzyme from synthesizing precursors of thromboxane in platelets thereby reducing platelet aggregation.
Thrombocyte Aggregation, Bioactive Food as Dietary Interventions for Cardiovascular Disease, Science Direct, October 26 , 2012 Collection of Articles, A.N.Prabhu*A.R.Shivashankara*R.Haniadka*P.L.Palatty*D.Prabhu†M.S.Baliga*
*Father Muller Medical College, Mangalore, Karnataka, India
40Leukotrienes in gynaecology: the hypothetical value of anti-leukotriene therapy in dysmenorrhoea and endometriosis, PubMed, Mar-Apr 2000 , Abu JI, Konje JC. Leukotrienes in gynaecology: the hypothetical value of anti-leukotriene therapy in dysmenorrhoea and endometriosis. Hum Reprod Update. 2000 Mar-Apr;6(2):200-5. doi: 10.1093/humupd/6.2.200
42Leukotriene C4 Leukotrienes C4, D4, and E4 are cysteinyl leukotrienes that are primarily responsible for the increase in vascular permeability and contraction of bronchial smooth muscle associated with an anaphylactic reaction or an acute asthma attack.
43Leukotriene Modifiers, Leukotriene modifiers, also called leukotriene receptor antagonists, are a group of medications. They can help prevent breathing problems associated with allergies, asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Examples include montelukast, zafirlukast and zileuton,Cleveland Clinic, https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/drugs/14278-leukotriene-modifiers
Skip Nav DestinationResolvins suppress tumor growth and enhance cancer therapy, JEM, Rockerfeller University Press, Article|November 30 2017, In Special Collection: 2018: The Year in Experimental Medicine , Cancer 2018 , Cancer Plasticity and Heterogeneity , Cell Death, Inflammation, and Adaptation to Tissue Stress , Translational Immunology 2018
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48Resolving inflammation: dual anti-inflammatory and pro-resolution lipid mediators, Nature, May 2008, Charles N. Serhan, Nan Chiang & Thomas E. Van Dyke Nature Reviews Immunology volume 8, pages349–361 (2008)https://doi.org/10.1038/nri2294
49Resolving inflammation: dual anti-inflammatory and pro-resolution lipid mediators, Nature, May 2008, Charles N. Serhan, Nan Chiang & Thomas E. Van Dyke Nature Reviews Immunology volume 8, pages349–361 (2008), https://doi.org/10.1038/nri2294
50anti-inflammatory agent, A drug or substance that reduces inflammation (redness, swelling, and pain) in the body. Anti-inflammatory agents block certain substances in the body that cause inflammation. They are used to treat many different conditions. Some anti-inflammatory agents are being studied in the prevention and treatment of cancer , NIH, National Cancer Institute,
56Myelin Fat Facts: An Overview of Lipids and Fatty Acid Metabolism,PMC, April 9, 2020, Poitelon Y, Kopec AM, Belin S. Myelin Fat Facts: An Overview of Lipids and Fatty Acid Metabolism. Cells. 2020 Mar 27;9(4):812. doi: 10.3390/cells9040812 PMID: 32230947 PMCID: PMC7226731. Yannick Poitelon, Ashley M. Kopec, and Sophie Belin* Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY 12208, USA; ude.cma@yletiop (Y.P.); ude.cma@acepok (A.M.K.)
57Myelin Fat Facts: An Overview of Lipids and Fatty Acid Metabolism,PMC, April 9, 2020, Poitelon Y, Kopec AM, Belin S. Myelin Fat Facts: An Overview of Lipids and Fatty Acid Metabolism. Cells. 2020 Mar 27;9(4):812. doi: 10.3390/cells9040812 PMID: 32230947 PMCID: PMC7226731. Yannick Poitelon, Ashley M. Kopec, and Sophie Belin* Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY 12208, USA; ude.cma@yletiop (Y.P.); ude.cma@acepok (A.M.K.)
59Effects of Alpha Lipoic Acid on Loss of Myelin Sheath of Sciatic Nerve in Experimentally Induced Diabetic Rats,PubMed, June 2018, Tasci I, Demir CF, Kuloglu T. Effects of Alpha Lipoic Acid on Loss of Myelin Sheath of Sciatic Nerve in Experimentally Induced Diabetic Rats. Med Arch. 2018 Jun;72(3):178-181. doi: 10.5455/medarh.2018.72.178-181. . PMID: 30061762; PMCID: PMC6021160. Irem Tasci1, Caner Feyzi Demir2, Tuncay Kuloglu3 , Department of Neurology, Malatya Education and Research Hospital, Malatya, Turkey.
Firat University, School of Medicine, Department of Neurology. Malatya, Turkey.
Firat University, School of Medicine, Department of Histology, Malatya, Turekey.
69Dietary Flaxseed as a Strategy for Improving Human Health, PubMed, May 25, 2019, Parikh M, Maddaford TG, Austria JA, Aliani M, Netticadan T, Pierce GN. Dietary Flaxseed as a Strategy for Improving Human Health. Nutrients. 2019 May 25;11(5):1171. doi: 10.3390/nu11051171
Canadian Centre for Agri-Food Research in Health and Medicine (CCARM), Albrechtsen Research Centre, St Boniface Hospital, 351 Taché Avenue, Winnipeg, MB R2H 2A6, Canada. mparikh@sbrc.ca.
Institute of Cardiovascular Sciences, Albrechtsen Research Centre, St. Boniface Hospital, 351 Taché Avenue, Winnipeg, MB R2H 2A6, Canada. mparikh@sbrc.ca.
Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, College of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0W3, Canada. tmaddaford@sbrc.ca.
Canadian Centre for Agri-Food Research in Health and Medicine (CCARM), Albrechtsen Research Centre, St Boniface Hospital, 351 Taché Avenue, Winnipeg, MB R2H 2A6, Canada. tmaddaford@sbrc.ca.
Institute of Cardiovascular Sciences, Albrechtsen Research Centre, St. Boniface Hospital, 351 Taché Avenue, Winnipeg, MB R2H 2A6, Canada. tmaddaford@sbrc.ca.
Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, College of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0W3, Canada. aaustria@sbrc.ca.
Canadian Centre for Agri-Food Research in Health and Medicine (CCARM), Albrechtsen Research Centre, St Boniface Hospital, 351 Taché Avenue, Winnipeg, MB R2H 2A6, Canada. aaustria@sbrc.ca.
Institute of Cardiovascular Sciences, Albrechtsen Research Centre, St. Boniface Hospital, 351 Taché Avenue, Winnipeg, MB R2H 2A6, Canada. aaustria@sbrc.ca.
Canadian Centre for Agri-Food Research in Health and Medicine (CCARM), Albrechtsen Research Centre, St Boniface Hospital, 351 Taché Avenue, Winnipeg, MB R2H 2A6, Canada. maliani@sbrc.ca.
Department of Human Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada. maliani@sbrc.ca.
Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, College of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0W3, Canada. tnetticadan@sbrc.ca.
Canadian Centre for Agri-Food Research in Health and Medicine (CCARM), Albrechtsen Research Centre, St Boniface Hospital, 351 Taché Avenue, Winnipeg, MB R2H 2A6, Canada. tnetticadan@sbrc.ca.
Morden Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Morden, MB R6M 1Y5, Canada. tnetticadan@sbrc.ca.
Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, College of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0W3, Canada. gpierce@sbrc.ca.
Canadian Centre for Agri-Food Research in Health and Medicine (CCARM), Albrechtsen Research Centre, St Boniface Hospital, 351 Taché Avenue, Winnipeg, MB R2H 2A6, Canada. gpierce@sbrc.ca.
Institute of Cardiovascular Sciences, Albrechtsen Research Centre, St. Boniface Hospital, 351 Taché Avenue, Winnipeg, MB R2H 2A6, Canada. gpierce@sbrc.ca.
81Alpha-Linolenic and Linoleic Fatty Acids in the Vegan Diet: Do They Require Dietary Reference Intake/Adequate Intake Special Consideration?PMC, October 11, 2019, Burns-Whitmore B, Froyen E, Heskey C, Parker T, San Pablo G. Alpha-Linolenic and Linoleic Fatty Acids in the Vegan Diet: Do They Require Dietary Reference Intake/Adequate Intake Special Consideration? Nutrients. 2019 Oct 4;11(10):2365. doi: 10.3390/nu11102365 PMID: 31590264 ; PMCID: PMC6835948. Bonny Burns-Whitmore,1,* Erik Froyen,1 Celine Heskey,2 Temetra Parker,1 and Gregorio San Pablo1 1Nutrition and Food Science Department, Don B Huntley College of Agriculture, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, CA 91768, USA; ude.ppc@neyorfbe (E.F.); moc.oohay@suoartem (T.P.); moc.liamg@olbapnasyggerg (G.S.P.)
2Nutrition Department, School of Public Health, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92354, USA; ude.ull@yeksehc
83Alpha-Linolenic and Linoleic Fatty Acids in the Vegan Diet: Do They Require Dietary Reference Intake/Adequate Intake Special Consideration?PMC, October 11, 2019, Burns-Whitmore B, Froyen E, Heskey C, Parker T, San Pablo G. Alpha-Linolenic and Linoleic Fatty Acids in the Vegan Diet: Do They Require Dietary Reference Intake/Adequate Intake Special Consideration? Nutrients. 2019 Oct 4;11(10):2365. doi: 10.3390/nu11102365 PMID: 31590264 ; PMCID: PMC6835948. Bonny Burns-Whitmore,1,* Erik Froyen,1 Celine Heskey,2 Temetra Parker,1 and Gregorio San Pablo1 1Nutrition and Food Science Department, Don B Huntley College of Agriculture, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, CA 91768, USA; ude.ppc@neyorfbe (E.F.); moc.oohay@suoartem (T.P.); moc.liamg@olbapnasyggerg (G.S.P.)
2Nutrition Department, School of Public Health, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92354, USA; ude.ull@yeksehc
86Fatty acid desaturaseA fatty acid desaturase is an enzyme that removes two hydrogen atoms from a fatty acid, creating a carbon/carbon double bond. These desaturases are classified as:
Delta – indicating that the double bond is created at a fixed position from the carboxyl end of a fatty acid chain. For example, Δ9 desaturase creates a double bond between the ninth and tenth carbon atom from the carboxyl end.
Omega – indicating the double bond is created at a fixed position from the methyl end of a fatty acid chain. For instance, ω3 desaturase creates a double bond between the third and fourth carbon atom from the methyl end. In other words, it creates an omega-3 fatty acid.
93A major mechanism in the cellular defense against oxidative or electrophilic stress is activation of the Nrf2-antioxidant response element signaling pathway, which controls the expression of genes whose protein products are involved in the detoxication and elimination of reactive oxidants and electrophilic agents through conjugative reactions and by enhancing cellular antioxidant capacity. … https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2679427/ The nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) is a transcription factor that responds to oxidative stress by binding to the antioxidant response element (ARE) in the promoter of genes coding for antioxidant enzymes like NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase 1 and proteins for glutathione synthesis https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22819548/
Kedar N. Prasad1,1Engage Global, 245 El Faison Drive, San Rafael, CA, USA;Address correspondence to this author at the Engage Global, 245 El Faisan Drive, San Rafael, CA 94903, USA; Tel: 415-686-6251; E-mail:ten.tsacmoc@dasarpnk*and Stephen C. Bondy2Center for Occupational and Environmental Health, Department of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, CA92697, USA
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2Metabolism Section, Medicine Service and Dermatology Service, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94121, USA.
103Essential function of linoleic acid esterified in acylglucosylceramide and acylceramide in maintaining the epidermal water permeability barrier. Evidence from feeding studies with oleate, linoleate, arachidonate, columbinate and alpha-linolenate, PubMed, May 17, 1985, Hansen HS, Jensen B. Essential function of linoleic acid esterified in acylglucosylceramide and acylceramide in maintaining the epidermal water permeability barrier. Evidence from feeding studies with oleate, linoleate, arachidonate, columbinate and alpha-linolenate. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1985 May 17;834(3):357-63. doi: 10.1016/0005-2760(85)90009-8. PMID: 3922424.H S Hansen, B Jensen, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3922424/
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105Healing fats of the skin: the structural and immunologic roles of the omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids, PubMed, July-August, 2010, McCusker MM, Grant-Kels JM. Healing fats of the skin: the structural and immunologic roles of the omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids. Clin Dermatol. 2010 Jul-Aug;28(4):440-51. doi: 10.1016/j.clindermatol.2010.03.020. PMID: 20620762.Meagen M McCusker 1, Jane M Grant-Kels, Department of Dermatology University of Connecticut Health Center, 263 Farmington Avenue, MC 6230, Farmington, CT 06030, USA.https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20620762/
118Activation of Hair Cell Growth Factors by Linoleic Acid in Malva verticillata Seed, PubMed, April 7, 2021, Ryu HS, Jeong J, Lee CM, Lee KS, Lee JN, Park SM, Lee YM. Activation of Hair Cell Growth Factors by Linoleic Acid in Malva verticillata Seed. Molecules. 2021 Apr 7;26(8):2117. doi: 10.3390/molecules26082117. PMID: 33917070; PMCID: PMC8067726., Hwa Sun Ryu 1, JiYeon Jeong 1, Chun Mong Lee 2, Kwang Sik Lee 2, Jung-No Lee 1, Sung-Min Park 1, Yong-Moon Lee 3, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33917070/
119 Omega-3 Versus Omega-6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in the Prevention and Treatment of Inflammatory Skin Diseases, PMC, February 2020, Balić A, Vlašić D, Žužul K, Marinović B, Bukvić Mokos Z. Omega-3 Versus Omega-6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in the Prevention and Treatment of Inflammatory Skin Diseases. Int J Mol Sci. 2020 Jan 23;21(3):741. doi: 10.3390/ijms21030741. PMID: 31979308; PMCID: PMC7037798. Anamaria Balić,1 Domagoj Vlašić,2 Kristina Žužul,3 Branka Marinović,1 and Zrinka Bukvić Mokos1,*,1Department of Dermatology and Venereology, University Hospital Centre Zagreb, School of Medicine University of Zagreb, Šalata 4, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia; moc.liamg@airamanacivoj (A.B.); rh.bergaz-cbk@civoniram.aknarb (B.M.)2Department of Ophtalmology and Optometry, General Hospital Dubrovnik, Ulica dr. Roka Mišetića 2, 20000 Dubrovnik, Croatia; moc.oohay@cisalvjogamod3School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Šalata 3, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; moc.liamg@anitsirkluzuz,*Correspondence: moc.liamg@sokom.civkub.aknirz https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7037798/
122The omega-6/omega-3 fatty acid ratio: health implications,OCL – Oilseeds and fats, Crops and Lipids, September 15 , 2010, Artemis P. Simopoulos, The Center for Genetics, Nutrition and Health, 2001 S Street, NW, Suite 530, Washington DC 20009 USA, OCL,Volume 17, Number 5, Septembre-Octobre 2010, https://doi.org/10.1051/ocl.2010.0325,
123The omega-6/omega-3 fatty acid ratio: health implications,OCL – Oilseeds and fats, Crops and Lipids, September 15 , 2010, Artemis P. Simopoulos, The Center for Genetics, Nutrition and Health, 2001 S Street, NW, Suite 530, Washington DC 20009 USA, OCL,Volume 17, Number 5, Septembre-Octobre 2010, https://doi.org/10.1051/ocl.2010.0325,
138The omega-6/omega-3 fatty acid ratio: health implications,OCL – Oilseeds and fats, Crops and Lipids, September 15 , 2010, Artemis P. Simopoulos, The Center for Genetics, Nutrition and Health, 2001 S Street, NW, Suite 530, Washington DC 20009 USA, OCL,Volume 17, Number 5, Septembre-Octobre 2010, https://doi.org/10.1051/ocl.2010.0325,
146Oil content and fatty acid composition of eggs cooked in drying oven, microwave and pan, PMC,Jan 9. 2017 , Juhaimi FA, Uslu N, Özcan MM. Oil content and fatty acid composition of eggs cooked in drying oven, microwave and pan. J Food Sci Technol. 2017 Jan;54(1):93-97. doi: 10.1007/s13197-016-2439-x Epub 2017 Jan 9. PMID: 28242907; PMCID: PMC5305705. Fahad Al Juhaimi,1 Nurhan Uslu,2 and Mehmet Musa Özcan 2 , 1Department of Food Science and Nutrition, College of Food and Agricultural Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
2Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Selcuk University, 42031 Konya, Turkey
157Phenolic compounds kill the virus. See Can You Use Vinegar as a Disinfectant? Healthline, August 5, 2020 , Kirsten Nunez Medically reviewed by Deborah Weatherspoon, Ph.D., R.N., CRNA https://www.healthline.com/health/is-vinegar-a-disinfectant#products Apple vinegar contains a more complex phenolic compound profile. Apart from gallic acid and p-hydroxybenzoic acid, also catechin, syringic acid, caffeic acid and p-coumaric acid were observed. Fruit Antioxidants during Vinegar Processing: Changes in Content and in Vitro Bio-Accessibility, PMC, September 29, 2016, Bakir S, Toydemir G, Boyacioglu D, Beekwilder J, Capanoglu E. Fruit Antioxidants during Vinegar Processing: Changes in Content and in Vitro Bio-Accessibility. Int J Mol Sci. 2016 Sep 29;17(10):1658. doi: 10.3390/ijms17101658. PMID: 27690020; PMCID: PMC5085691, Sena Bakir,1,2 Gamze Toydemir,3 Dilek Boyacioglu,1 Jules Beekwilder,4 and Esra Capanoglu1,*Maurizio Battino, Academic Editor,1Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, Maslak, 34469 Istanbul, Turkey; moc.liamg@rikabanes (S.B.); rt.ude.uti@icayob (D.B.)
2Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Recep Tayyip Erdogan University, Merkez, 53100 Rize, Turkey
3Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Okan University, Akfirat-Tuzla, 34959 Istanbul, Turkey; moc.liamg@ezmag.rimedyot
4Plant Research International, Wageningen UR, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands; ln.ruw@redliwkeeb.seluj
161Thermal and oxidative stability of Atlantic salmon oil (Salmo salar L.) and complexation with β-cyclodextrin,PMC, February 2, 2016, Hădărugă DI, Ünlüsayin M, Gruia AT, Birău Mitroi C, Rusu G, Hădărugă NG. Thermal and oxidative stability of Atlantic salmon oil (Salmo salar L.) and complexation with β-cyclodextrin. Beilstein J Org Chem. 2016 Feb 2;12:179-91. doi: 10.3762/bjoc.12.20 PMID: 26977177 ; PMCID: PMC477852, Daniel I Hădărugă, 1,§ Mustafa Ünlüsayin,2 Alexandra T Gruia,3 Cristina Birău (Mitroi),4 Gerlinde Rusu,1 and Nicoleta G Hădărugă4 1Department of Applied Chemistry, Organic and Natural Compounds Engineering, Polytechnic University of Timişoara, Carol Telbisz 6, 300001 Timişoara, Romania
2Department of Fish Processing Technology, Akdeniz University, Dumlupinar Boulevard, Campus Antalya, 07058 Antalya, Turkey
3Regional Centre for Immunology and Transplant, County Clinical Emergency Hospital Timişoara, Iosif Bulbuca Blvd. 10, 300736 Timişoara, Romania
4Department of Food Science, Banat’s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine “King Mihai I of Romania” – Timişoara, Calea Aradului 119, 300645 Timişoara, Romania
167Scientists believe omega-6s are pro-inflammatory, while omega-3s are anti-inflammatory ( 1 ). Of course, inflammation is essential for your survival. It helps protect your body from infection and injury, but it can also cause severe damage and contribute to disease when it’s chronic or excessive.How toOptimize Your Omega-6 to Omega-3 Ratio, Healthline, June 11, 2018 , Kris Gunnars, Bsc, https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/optimize-omega-6-omega-3-ratio
168EPA and DHA, were significantly degraded, even at 50 °C. Their relative concentrations decrease from 6.1% for EPA and 4.1% for DHA to 1.7% and 1.5% after degradation at 150 °C, respectively. Thermal and oxidative stability of Atlantic salmon oil (Salmo salar L.) and complexation with β-cyclodextrin,PMC, February 2, 2016, Hădărugă DI, Ünlüsayin M, Gruia AT, Birău Mitroi C, Rusu G, Hădărugă NG. Thermal and oxidative stability of Atlantic salmon oil (Salmo salar L.) and complexation with β-cyclodextrin. Beilstein J Org Chem. 2016 Feb 2;12:179-91. doi: 10.3762/bjoc.12.20 PMID: 26977177 ; PMCID: PMC477852, Daniel I Hădărugă, 1,§ Mustafa Ünlüsayin,2 Alexandra T Gruia,3 Cristina Birău (Mitroi),4 Gerlinde Rusu,1 and Nicoleta G Hădărugă4 1Department of Applied Chemistry, Organic and Natural Compounds Engineering, Polytechnic University of Timişoara, Carol Telbisz 6, 300001 Timişoara, Romania
2Department of Fish Processing Technology, Akdeniz University, Dumlupinar Boulevard, Campus Antalya, 07058 Antalya, Turkey
3Regional Centre for Immunology and Transplant, County Clinical Emergency Hospital Timişoara, Iosif Bulbuca Blvd. 10, 300736 Timişoara, Romania
4Department of Food Science, Banat’s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine “King Mihai I of Romania” – Timişoara, Calea Aradului 119, 300645 Timişoara, Romania
169Here it is explained what is meant with saturated, mono unsaturated, poly unsaturated, cis and trans fats, Dietary- and Trans Fats,Scentses4d, November 10, 2020, Anna Elize, https://scentses4d.wordpress.com/2020/11/10/dietary-and-trans-fats/ and Alpha-Linolenic-Acid, Mount Sinai, Health Library, Again the wrong definition of AlphaLinolenic Acid, as if it is an inefficient way of gettingOmega 3. it is not.It is the perfect way to getOmega 3. Most of it is used in the body as Omega-3-ALA in the celmembranes.
173[The essential fatty acids omega-6 and omega-3: from their discovery to their use in therapy], PubMed, April 6, 2008, Caramia G. Gli acidi grassi essenziali omega-3 ed omega-6: dalla loro scoperta alle prospettive terapeutiche [The essential fatty acids omega-6 and omega-3: from their discovery to their use in therapy]. Minerva Pediatr. 2008 Apr;60(2):219-33. Italian. PMID: 18449139, G Caramia,Dipartimento di Pediatria e Neonatologia, Azienda Ospedaliera Materno Infantile, G.Salesi, Ancona, Italia. caramiagm@libero.it
177No upper limit (UL) has been set for linoleic acid because of a lack of a defined intake establishing adverse affects (2). In epidemiologic studies, there is little evidence that suggests linoleic acid contributes to cardiovascular disease, cancer, or inflammation (where inverse correlations may exist). Linoleic Acid
193Protozoa are unicellular eukaryotes. As in all eukaryotes, the nucleus is enclosed in a membrane. In protozoa other than ciliates, the nucleus is vesicular, with scattered chromatin giving a diffuse appearance to the nucleus, all nuclei in the individual organism appear alike, Chapter 77: Protozoa: Structure, Classification, Growth, and Development, Medical Microbiology. 4th edition.Robert G. Yaeger, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8325/
194Eukaryotic Cell: Eukaryotic cells are defined as cells containing organized nucleus and organelles which are enveloped by membrane-bound organelles. Examples of eukaryotic cells are plants, animals, protists, fungi. Their genetic material is organized in chromosomes. Golgi apparatus, Mitochondria, Ribosomes, Nucleus are parts of Eukaryotic Cells. Toppr,https://www.toppr.com/guides/biology/cell-the-unit-of-life/eukaryotic-cell/
197Aliphatic Compound, ThoughtCo, Updated on September 30, 2019By Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D.,An aliphatic compoundis an organic compoundcontaining carbon and hydrogen joined together in straight chains, branched chains, or non-aromatic rings. It is one of two broad classes of hydrocarbons, the other being aromatic compounds.https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-aliphatic-compound-604760#
202Aromatic Compounds: For a compound to be considered aromatic, it must be flat, cyclic, and conjugated and it must obey Huckel’s rule. Huckel’s rule states that an aromatic compound must have 4n+2 pi electrons in the overlapping p orbitals in order to be aromatic (n in this formula represents any integer). Only compounds with 2, 6, 10, 14, . . . pi electrons can be considered aromaticOrganic Chemistry : Identifying Aromatic Compounds, . Varsity Tutors,https://www.varsitytutors.com/organic_chemistry-help/identifying-aromatic-compounds
212Fatty Acids: From Membrane Ingredients to Signaling Molecules, Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids, November 5, 2018, Michio Hashimoto and Shahdat Hossain,Edited by Viduranga Waisundara ,https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/63324
225Lipid Raft: Lipid rafts are defined as cholesterol- and sphingolipid-enriched membrane domains and numerous studies have attempted the lipid characterization of caveolae and raft domains. From: International Review of Cell and Molecular Biology, 2010, ScienceDirect, https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/lipid-raft
237Oxygen diffusion in biological and artificial membranes determined by the fluorochrome pyrene, PubMed, May 1975, Fischkoff S, Vanderkooi JM. Oxygen diffusion in biological and artificial membranes determined by the fluorochrome pyrene. J Gen Physiol. 1975 May;65(5):663-76. doi: 10.1085/jgp.65.5.663, PMID: 1176942; PMCID: PMC2214886, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1176942/
241Convection: process by which heat is transferred by movement of a heated fluid such as air or water.
Natural convection results from the tendency of most fluids to expand when heated—i.e., to become less dense and to rise as a result of the increased buoyancy. Circulation caused by this effect accounts for the uniform heating of water in a kettle or air in a heated room: the heated molecules expand the space they move in through increased speed against one another, rise, and then cool and come closer together again, with increase in density and a resultant sinking. Convection,Encyclopedia Britannica,https://www.britannica.com/science/convection.
242Diffusion: process resulting from random motion of molecules by which there is a net flow of matter from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. A familiar example is the perfume of a flower that quickly permeates the still air of a room. Heat conduction in fluids involves thermal energy transported, or diffused, from higher to lower temperature. Operation of a nuclear reactor involves the diffusion of neutrons through a medium that causes frequent scattering but only rare absorption of neutrons.Encyclopedia Britannica,https://www.britannica.com/science/diffusion
245Human cells can burst from osmosis Study.com,Science, Cell Biology, Human cells can burst due to the effects of osmosis. If a cell is placed into a solution with a lower solute concentration (hypotonic solution) than the cell, water will flow into the cell. Water will continue to flow until equilibrium is reached (when the concentration inside the cell is equal with the concentration outside the cell) or when the cell cannot take on any more water and bursts. https://study.com/academy/answer/why-don-t-human-cells-burst-from-osmosis.html
246Cytolysis, Cytolysis, also known as osmotic lysis, occurs when a cell bursts and releases its contents into the extracellular environment due to a great influx of water into the cell, far exceeding the capacity of the cell membrane to contain the extra volume. This is a concern particularly for cells that do not have a tough cell wall to resist internal water pressure,Biology Dictionary, Cytolysis Definition, Update April 28, 2017, https://biologydictionary.net/cytolysis/
248What happens if you drink too much water? MedicalNewsToday, Updated on May 14,2020, Written by Arlene Semeco, MS, RD, Medically reviewed by Adrienne Seitz, MS, RD, LDN, Nutrition, https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/318619#dangers
What are the best combinations for optimal absorption?
How much do you need of it a day?
What are the best food sources?
Those questions are answered in the summary at the end.
The rest is a compilation of all the information from studies on phosphorus I found.
When you order the information, the disonnect between the functions of phosphorus and the usual lists of consequences of too little and too much phosphorous, the information gaps become apparent. Here those gaps are closed with the most recent research.
Conclusion: Phosphorus is much more important, and the consequences of too little are much more serious than the usual articles claim.
Phosphorus is an essential mineral that your body uses to build healthy bones, create energy and make new cells1.
You have more of this mineral in your body than any other except calcium. Sulfur, calcium2, and phosphorus are the three most abundant minerals in the human body3.
“Phosphorus” comes from the Greek word phosphorous, which means “bringer of light.”
In drug or supplement form, it’s called phosphate4.
What are really the health benefits of phosphorus and the consequences of too little or too much?
In the information I find on phosphorus I observe a disconnect between the function of phosphorus and what the consequences are of too little phosphorus. You can read it here:
Function of Phosphorus
Phosporus plays an important role in keeping you healthy, so it’s an important part of your diet5.
One of its main tasks is to serve as a building block for healthy teeth and bones6.You may think that’s calcium’s job. But calcium needs phosphorus to make your teeth and bones strong7 and create healthy bones8 create energy and make new cells9 .
Phosphorus also helps your nerves and muscles do their jobs10.
It’s a buffer that keeps the pH level in your blood balanced11.
Phosphorus also helps you turn fat, carbs, and protein12into energy.
But what about the function of phosphorus to regulate bood pH? Does lack of phosphorous then not cause blood pH imbalance, and what is the consequence of that? And what about the role of phosphorus in creating string teeth and bones? Does lack of phorporus not cause weak bones and bad teeth? And what about the role of phosphorus in transforming fat, proteins and carbohydrates into energy? Does lackof phosphorus then not cause lethargy and weight gain?
Let’s take a look
What are the consequences of blood pH imbalance?
A blood pH imbalance can lead to two conditions: acidosis and alkalosis. Acidosis refers to having blood that’s too acidic, or a blood pH of less than 7.35. Alkalosis refers to having blood that’s too basic, or a blood pH of higher than 7.4523.
Consequences of Acidosis
The glycolytic enzyme phosphofructokinase is pH dependent, as its activity decreases with decreasing pH, and thus glucose utilization in brain cells is impaired.
Therefore, the clinical consequences of decreasing blood pH are
Acidosis is characterized by primary reduction in bicarbonate and pH revealed during arterial blood gas analysis26.
Treatment of acidosis
For more than 50 years, standard care of patients suffering metabolic acidosis, whatever its cause, has included iv administration of the base sodium bicarbonate to correct the acidosis27.
But look at the name of the study: Sodium bicarbonate: basically useless therapy28.
It states:
“This review examines the history of sodium bicarbonate use in neonatology and the evidence that refutes the clinical practice of administering sodium bicarbonate during cardiopulmonary resuscitation or to treat metabolic acidosis in the NICU29.”
Perhaps phosphorus supplementation would be a better idea. And indeed, this is what the literature confirms30.
Phosphorus aids in weight loss
And if phosphporus helps turn fat,carbs and protein into energy, you would expect that it aids in weight loss, and that low phosphorus can lead to weight gain.
And indeed, this is the case:
Low phosphorus status has been positively associated with increased body weight31.
Bones and Teeth
Since Phosphorus plays a role in healthy teeth and strong bones, you would expect lack of it to result in bad teeth and weak bones.
Without phosphorus, your body can’t use calcium well, even with Vitamin D. The results include bone brittleness and teeth that chip easily32
Phosphorus is abundant in all cells and tissues as an important component of DNA, RNA and phospholipids, a source of high-energy bonds in adenosine triphosphates (ATP), a substrate for various kinases and phosphatases, and a regulator of intracellular signaling. Phosphate homeostasis on a cellular level is therefore a significant aspect of normal function for most tissues and organs. Approximately 85% of phosphorus, the second most abundant mineral in the human body, is in bone, primarily compounded with calcium (Ca2+), the most abundant mineral, in hydroxyapatite (HAP) crystals deposited on the collagen matrix (Broadus, 2003). Other mineralized tissues such as teeth also contain calcium phosphate as HAP. The remainder is in soft tissue with only about 1% in extracellular fluids (Drezner, 2002). Therefore, maintenance of “normal” phosphate (inorganic or orthophosphate, Pi) homeostasis is essential for normal development, maintenance, and repair of teeth and skeletal tissues33.
Natural foods contain substantial quantities of phosphorus. Deficiency can occur as a result of severe starvation, intake of Pibinders that prevent absorption in the gut, or in diseases associated with renal Piwasting. Dietary Piis absorbed in the small intestine where the impact of hormonal regulation, mediated by the active form of vitamin D, 1,25 (OH)2vitamin D3(referred to herein as Vit D), is minor relative to dietary load. From blood, phosphorus is taken into cells, incorporated into mineralized tissue matrices, or excreted from the body in urine. Hormonal regulation is critical to the homeostasis of absorbed Pi, with the primary locus being the kidney, as much of the absorbed Piis excreted in the urine. Consequently, hormonal regulation of Piexcretion and reabsorption, more so than absorption, maintains circulating plasma concentrations (Drezner, 2002). This “parathyroid-kidney-intestine-bone/tooth” axis of Ca2+and Pibalance is exhibited in Figure 1, with further description of the factors of interest featured in section II34.
Serum calcium (Ca2+) and phosphate (Pi) levels regulate gene expression in the parathyroid-kidney-intestine- tooth axis
Decreases in serum Ca2+ induce the calcium sensing receptor in the parathyroid glands, embedded in the thyroid gland, to secrete PTH into the bloodstream. PTH stimulates the activity of 1-α-hydroxylase in the kidney which catalyzes the formation of the active 1,25 dihydroxy form of Vit D (line 1). PTH potently stimulates osteoclast activity to release Ca2+ from bone. Active Vit D increases intestinal absorption of Ca2+ via the TRPV6 Ca2+ channel and of Pi through the Npt2b ion channel. Renal reabsorption of Pi is increased by Vit D through increased Npt2c activity (line 2). PTH acts to reduce Pi reabsorbtion by down-regulation of Npt2a, while the induced increase in serum Ca2+ reduces secretion of PTH. Vit D has effects on tooth mineralization as evidenced by dentin defects under Vit D deficient states. Vit D acts to increase the expression of FGF23 in bone and the FGF23 receptor binding partner Klotho in the kidney (line 3). FGF23 reduces the activity of 1-α-hydroxylase, decreasing the formation of active Vit D (line 4), closing the loop began by PTH demonstrated by the lines numbered 1-4. SIBLING protein expression in bones and teeth are affected by Pi levels. Mutations in Phex induce expression of FGF23 in osteocytes and ameloblasts and odontoblasts, with concurrent increases in MEPE expression and ASARM formation. Loss of function mutations in Dmp1 induce an increase in FGF23 and decrease in DSPP expression levels. The gene expression changes in these mutations result in decreased mineralization in bones and teeth. The hyperphosphatemia in the FGF23 loss of function mutant may induce the observed increased expression of DMP1 in bone and tooth in a compensatory attempt to increase mineralization35..
Kidney stones
Low phosphorus may also cause kidney stones:
“Alterations in phosphorus homeostasis also may contribute to calcium kidney stones. In one cross-sectional study of 207 calcium stone formers and 105 controls, mean serum phosphate was 9% lower and fractional excretion of phosphate was 29% higher in stone formers . Other investigators also have reported lower values of serum phosphate in smaller series of patients with kidney stones . More recent data have led to speculation that higher plasma fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23), an osteocyte-derived phosphaturic hormone, may contribute to calcium kidney stone formation 36.
Nerve disorders
If phosphorus is important for nerves, you would expectnervoussystem disorders to occur when there is lack of phosphorus, and according to to the following study, this is indeed the case:
“Severe hypophosphataemia, when combined with phosphorus depletion, has been known to cause a number of clinical conditions, including haematological impairment, metabolic acidosis, osteomalacia, central nervous system dysfunction, myocardial dysfunction, rhabdomiolysis and peripheral neuropathy”37.
Osteomalacia
Osteomalacia refers to a marked softening of your bones,. The softened bones of children and young adults with osteomalacia can lead to bowing during growth, especially in weight-bearing bones of the legs. Osteomalacia in older adults can lead to fractures38.
Rickets is the clinical consequence of impaired mineralization of bone matrix throughout the growing skeleton, whilst osteomalacia is the result of this disturbance after the growth plates have fused in adults39.
Rhabdomyolysis
Rhabdomyolysis is a serious syndrome due to a direct or indirect muscle injury. It results from the death of muscle fibers and release of their contents into the bloodstream. This can lead to serious complications such as renal (kidney) failure. This means the kidneys cannot remove waste and concentrated urine. In rare cases, rhabdomyolysis can even cause death. However, prompt treatment often brings a good outcome. Here’s what you need to know about rhabdomyolysis.
The “classic triad” of rhabdomyolysis symptoms are: muscle pain in the shoulders, thighs, or lower back; muscle weakness or trouble moving arms and legs; and dark red or brown urine or decreased urination. Half of people with the condition may have no muscle-related symptoms.
Confusion, dehydration, fever, or lack of consciousness40
Peripheral neuropathy
Peripheral neuropathy, a result of damage to the nerves located outside of the brain and spinal cord (peripheral nerves), often causes weakness, numbness and pain, usually in the hands and feet. It can also affect other areas and body functions including digestion, urination and circulation41
Risks of Too Much Phosphorus
While phosphorus is beneficial for most people, it can be harmful when consumed in excess. People with kidney disease can have trouble removing it from their blood and may need to limit their phosphorus intake 42.
Symptoms of too much phosphorus are:
High levels of phosphorus.can cause
your bones to lose calcium or
calcium deposits to form in your blood vessels, eyes, heart, and lungs.
If you have too much phosphorus in your body for a long period of time, your chance of a heart attack45 or stroke46goes up47.
High phosphate levels cause calcium levels in the blood to drop.
Low calcium levels can cause blood pH levels to rise.
Acidosis reduces, and alkalosis increases the binding of calcium to albumin, causing increased or decreased levels of ionized calcium, respectively52.
So acidosis reduces the binding of calcium to albumin, causing increased levels of ionized calcium,
and alkalosis increases the binding of calcium to albumin, causing decreased levels of ionized calcium.
Consequences of Alkalosis
When blood pH levels can become too high, and thus the blood too alkaline it is calles alkalosis. Metabolic alkalosis can have central nervous system manifestations ranging from confusion to coma, peripheral neuropathic symptoms of tremor, tingling and numbness, muscle weakness and twitching, and arrhythmias, particularly when associated with hypokalemia and hypocalcemia53.
Treating alkalosis
Metabolic alkalosis is usually treated by replacing water and electrolytes (sodium and potassium) while treating the cause. Rarely, when metabolic alkalosis is very severe, dilute acid is given intravenously. In respiratory alkalosis, the first step is to ensure that the person has enough oxygen54.
The recommended daily intake (RDI) for adults is 700 mg, but growing teens and pregnant women need more. The daily value (DV) was estimated to be 1,000 mg, but was recently updated to 1,250 mg to cover the needs of these groups59.
Meats and other proteins: beef, chicken, fish, and organ meat like liver
Milk and dairy foods: eggs, cottage cheese, and ice cream
Beans: navy, kidney, pinto, and garbanzo
Grains: bran and wheat germ
Nuts and seeds: almonds, cashews, peanut butter, and sunflower seeds62
Phosphorus is found in most foods, but some foods are especially good sources. This article lists 12 foods that are particularly high in phosphorus64.
Dairy
It is estimated that 20–30% of phosphorus in the average American diet comes from dairy65products like cheese, milk, cottage cheese and yogurt66
Just one ounce (28 grams) of Romano cheese contains 213 mg of phosphorus (30% of the RDI), and one cup (245 grams) of skim milk contains 35% of the RDI67.
Low-fat and non-fat dairy products, like yogurt and cottage cheese, contain the most phosphorus, while whole-fat dairy products contain the least68.
Low-fat dairy products like milk, cottage cheese and yogurt are excellent sources of phosphorus, providing at least 30% of the RDI per serving69.
100 grams of cottage cheese has 128 mg of phosphorus70.
Romano cheese: 100 grams has 760 mg of phosphorus71.
Low fat yoghurt: 100 grams has 93 mg of phosphorus72.
Whole fat yoghurt: 100 grams has 109 mg of phosphorus73.
Skim milk: 100 grams has 112mg mg of phosphorus74.
Milk kefir: 100 grams of has 228 mg mg of phosphorus77.
Sunflower and Pumpkin Seeds
Sunflower and pumpkin seeds also contain large amounts of phosphorus.
One ounce (28 grams) of roasted sunflower or pumpkin seeds78contains roughly 45% of the RDI for phosphorus 79.
100 grams of pumpkin seeds have 1233 mg of phosphorus80.
However, up to 80% of the phosphorus found in seeds is in a stored form called phytic acid81, or phytate, which humans cannot digest 82.
Soaking seeds until they sprout can help break down phytic acid, releasing some of the phosphorus for absorption83 . Like seeds, most of the phosphorus in nuts is stored as phytic acid, which is not digestible by humans. Soaking may help, though not all studies agree84.
So don’t overdo it with the soaking, because phytic acid has its benefits and fighs cancer85. Just soak those nutrients that are inedible otherwise, not the others.
Pumpkin and sunflower seeds can be enjoyed as a snack, sprinkled on salads, blended into nut butters or used in pesto, and are a great alternative for people who are allergic to peanuts or tree nuts.Sunflower and pumpkin seeds contain large amounts of the storage form of phosphorus called phytic acid, which humans can’t digest. Sprouting the seeds can help make the phosphorus available for absorption86.
100 grams of sunflower seeds have 1158 mg of phosphorus87
Nuts
Most nuts are good sources of phosphorus, but Brazil nuts top the list. Just a 1/2-cup (67 grams) of Brazil nuts provides more than 2/3 of the RDI for adults
Brazil nuts have 725mg Phosphorus, per 100 grams88.
Other nuts containing at least 40% of the RDI per 1/2-cup (60–70 grams) include cashews89, almonds90, pine nuts91 and pistachios 92 .
They are also great sources of plant-based protein, antioxidants and minerals. Eating them regularly is linked with better heart health93.
Many nuts, and especially Brazil nuts, are good sources of phosphorus, containing at least 40% of the RDI per 1/2-cup (67-gram) serving94.
Mg of Phosphorus per 100 grams:
Nuts, cashew nuts, raw : 593mg Nuts, cashew nuts, oil roasted, without salt added : 531mg Nuts, cashew nuts, oil roasted, with salt added : 531mg Nuts, cashew nuts, dry roasted, without salt added : 490mg 5. Nuts, cashew nuts, dry roasted, with salt added : 490mg 95
1. Nuts, brazilnuts, dried, unblanched : 725mg 2. Nuts, cashew nuts, raw : 593mg 3. Nuts, pilinuts, dried : 575mg 4. Nuts, pine nuts, dried : 575mg 5. Nuts, cashew nuts, oil roasted, without salt added : 531mg 6. Nuts, cashew nuts, oil roasted, with salt added : 531mg 7. Nuts, walnuts, black, dried : 513mg 8. Nuts, almond butter, plain, without salt added : 508mg 9. Nuts, almond butter, plain, with salt added : 508mg 10. Nuts, cashew nuts, dry roasted, without salt added : 490mg 11. Nuts, pistachio nuts, raw : 490mg 12. Nuts, cashew nuts, dry roasted, with salt added : 490mg 13. Nuts, almonds : 484mg 14. Nuts, almonds, blanched : 481mg 15. Nuts, almonds, dry roasted, without salt added : 470mg 16. Nuts, almonds, dry roasted, with salt added : 470mg 17. Nuts, pistachio nuts, dry roasted, without salt added : 469mg 18. Nuts, pistachio nuts, dry roasted, with salt added : 469mg 19. Nuts, almonds, oil roasted, without salt added : 466mg 20. Nuts, almonds, oil roasted, with salt added : 466mg 96
Many whole grains contain phosphorus, including wheat, oats and rice.
Spelt contains the most phosphorus (291 mg or 194 grams per cooked cup98), followed by oats (180 mg or 234 grams per cooked cup99) and rice (162 mg or 194 grams per cooked cup100).
100 grams of cooked spelt has 150 mg of phosphorus101
Most of the phosphorus in whole grains is found in the outer layer of the endosperm, known as the aleurone, and the inner layer, called the germ107.
These layers are removed when grains are refined, which is why whole grains108 are good sources of phosphorus109 and why refined grains are not110.
However, like seeds, most of the phosphorus in whole grains is stored as phytic acid, which is hard for the body to digest and absorb.
Soaking, sprouting or fermenting the grains can break down some of the phytic acid and make more of the phosphorus available for absorption111, 112, 113.
Whole grains like wheat, oats and rice contain a lot of phosphorus. Soaking, sprouting or fermenting the grains may make it more available for absorption114.
Amaranth and Quinoa
While amaranth and quinoa115are often referred to as “grains,” they are actually small seeds and are considered pseudocereals.
One cup (246 grams) of cooked amaranth contains 52% of the recommended daily intake of phosphorus for adults116 and the same volume of cooked quinoa117 contains 40% of the RDI .
100 grams of amaranth has 557 mg of phosphorus118.
Both of these foods are also good sources of fiber, minerals and protein, and are naturally gluten-free120, 121 .
Like other seeds, soaking, sprouting and fermenting can increase phosphorus availability122.
Ancient grains like amaranth and quinoa are highly nutritious and are good sources of phosphorus. One cooked cup (246 grams) contains at least 40% of the recommended daily intake123.
Beans and Lentils
Beans and lentils124also contain large amounts of phosphorus, and eating them regularly is associated with lower risk of many chronic diseases, including cancer125 ,126, 127.
Just one cup (198 grams) of boiled lentils contains 51% of the recommended daily intake and over 15 grams of fiber128, 129.
100 grams of lentils have 451 milligrams of phosphorus130.
Beans are also rich in phosphorus, especially Great Northern, chickpeas, navy and pinto beans, which all contain at least 250 mg per cup (164 to 182 grams)131, 132, 133, 134, 135.
Availability of the [hospherus in beans can be increased by soaking, sprouting and fermenting the beans136, 137 , 138.
Beans and lentils, especially when soaked, sprouted or fermented, are rich sources of phosphorus, containing at least 250 mg per cup (roughly 160–200 grams)139.
Summary:
What is Phosphorus
Phosphorus is the second most abundant mineral in the body, the first being Calcium.
Function of phosphorus
Phosporus plays an important role in keeping you healthy, so it’s an important part of your diet140.
Phosphorus helps your nerves and muscles do their jobs141.
Phosphorus is a buffer that keeps the pH level in your blood balanced142.
Phosphorus helps you turn fat, carbs, and protein143into energy.
Low phosphorus status has been positively associated with increased body weight152.
Low phosphorus causes the blood pH level to become unstable. If the pH level becomes to ow, and thus the blood becomes to acidic, it is called Acidosis.
The glycolytic enzyme phosphofructokinase is pH dependent, as its activity decreases with decreasing pH, and thus glucose utilization in brain cells is impaired.
Therefore, the clinical consequences of decreasing blood pH are
Peripheral neuropathy, a result of damage to the nerves located outside of the brain and spinal cord (peripheral nerves), often causes weakness, numbness and pain, usually in the hands and feet. It can also affect other areas and body functions including digestion, urination and circulation156
Symptoms of too much phosphorus are:
High phosphorus levels cause calcium levels in the blood to drop.
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Welch Center for Prevention, Epidemiology, and Clinical Research, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA. achang@geisinger.edu.
Division of Nephrology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA. achang@geisinger.edu.
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Welch Center for Prevention, Epidemiology, and Clinical Research, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA. lappel@jhmi.edu.
Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA. lappel@jhmi.edu.
Division of General Internal Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA. lappel@jhmi.edu.
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151Calcium and Phosphorus Regulatory Hormones and Risk of Incident Symptomatic Kidney Stones,PMC, April 7, 2015, Taylor EN, Hoofnagle AN, Curhan GC. Calcium and phosphorus regulatory hormones and risk of incident symptomatic kidney stones. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2015 Apr 7;10(4):667-75. doi: 10.2215/CJN.07060714 Epub 2015 Jan 26. PMID: 25623233 ; PMCID: PMC4386254. Eric N. Taylor, *† Andrew N. Hoofnagle,‡ and Gary C. Curhan**Channing Division of Network Medicine and§Renal Division, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts; †Division of Nephrology and Transplantation, Maine Medical Center, Portland, Maine;‡Departments of Medicine and Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington; andDepartment of Epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, Correspondence: Dr. Eric N. Taylor, Division of Nephrology and Transplantation, Maine Medical Center, 22 Bramhall Street, Portland, ME 04102. Email: gro.srentrap@rolyatnhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4386254/
152Effect of phosphorus supplementation on weight gain and waist circumference of overweight/obese adults: a randomized clinical trial,PMC, December 21, 2015, Ayoub JJ, Samra MJ, Hlais SA, Bassil MS, Obeid OA. Effect of phosphorus supplementation on weight gain and waist circumference of overweight/obese adults: a randomized clinical trial. Nutr Diabetes. 2015 Dec 21;5(12):e189. doi: 10.1038/nutd.2015.38 PMID: 26690287 PMCID: PMC4735052, J J Ayoub,1,4 M J A Samra,1,4 S A Hlais,2 M S Bassil,3 and O A Obeid1,* 1Department of Nutrition and Food Science, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon 2Department of Family Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, American University of Beirut Medical Center, Beirut, Lebanon 3Department of Natural Sciences, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Lebanese American University, Beirut, Lebanon *Department of Nutrition and Food Science, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, American University of Beirut, PO Box 11-0236, Beirut 1107 2020, Lebanon. E-mail: bl.ude.bua@diebo.ramohttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4735052/
154Dangers of very low blood pH,PMC, Rosival V. Dangers of very low blood pH. Indian J Crit Care Med. 2011 Jul;15(3):194. doi: 10.4103/0972-5229.84887 ,PMID: 22013317; PMCID: PMC3190476. Viktor Rosival, Department of Laboratory Medicine, SYNLAB, Dérer’s Hospital, Bratislava, Slovakia, Correspondence: Dr. Viktor Rosival, Department of Laboratory Medicine, SYNLAB, Dérer’s Hospital, Limbová 5, SK-833 05 Bratislava, Slovakia, Europe. E-mail: moc.liamtoh@vlavisor https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3190476/
155Hypophosphataemic neuropathy in a patient who received intravenous hyperalimentation,PMC, October 2007, Iguchi Y, Mori K, Koike H, Mano K, Goto Y, Kato T, Nakano T, Furukawa D, Sobue G. Hypophosphataemic neuropathy in a patient who received intravenous hyperalimentation. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2007 Oct;78(10):1159-60. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.2006.108720 PMID: 17878199 PMCID: PMC2117536.Yohei Iguchi, Keiko Mori, Haruki Koike, Kazuo Mano, Yoji Goto, Takashi Kato, Tomonobu Nakano, Daisuke Furukawa, and Gen Sobue, Yohei Iguchi, Department of Neurology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, JapanKeiko Mori, Haruki Koike, Department of Neurology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, JapanKazuo Mano, Yoji Goto, Takashi Kato, Tomonobu Nakano, Department of Neurology, Japanese Red Cross Nagoya First Hospital, Nagoya, JapanDaisuke Furukawa, Department of Gastroenterology, Japanese Red Cross Nagoya First Hospital, Nagoya, JapanGen Sobue, Department of Neurology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, JapanCorrespondence to: Professor Gen Sobue 65 Tsurumaicho, Showaku, Nagoya 466‐8550, Japan; sobueg@med.nagoya‐u.ac.jp https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2117536/
159Calcium to phosphorus ratio, essential elements and vitamin D content of infant foods in the UK: Possible implications for bone health, PMC, July 13, 2017, Loughrill E, Wray D, Christides T, Zand N. Calcium to phosphorus ratio, essential elements and vitamin D content of infant foods in the UK: Possible implications for bone health. Matern Child Nutr. 2017 Jul;13(3):e12368. doi: 10.1111/mcn.12368, Epub 2016 Sep 9. PMID: 27612307; PMCID: PMC6865864, Emma Loughrill1, David Wray1, Tatiana Christides1, Nazanin Zand1 , Faculty of Engineering and Science, University of Greenwich, Medway Campus, Chatham Maritime, Kent, ME4 4TB, UK., https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27612307/
167Nutritional Functional Value and Therapeutic Utilization of Amaranth, Submitted: April 3rd, 2019Reviewed: May 17th, 2019Published: August 29th, 2019, Manuel Soriano-García and Isabel Saraid Aguirre-Díaz , DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.86897, https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/67741
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